Peripheral Desk Reference

Peripheral Perception via Subliminal Stimuli
DESK REFERENCE
Revised 10/2000

Written, compiled and edited

E. Taylor, R. Sadana and R. Bey
Progressive Awareness Research
ISBN: 1-55978-030-4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i

Forward ii

Introduction iii

The Controversy (iv)

Understanding Subliminal (vi)

Subconscious Mind Power (viii)

History (xi)

Theoretical Models of Subliminal Perception (xiv)

The Legal Status of Subliminal Communication in America (xvi)

Remarks for the Revised Edition (Winter 2000)

Subliminal Literature: 1

SUBLIMINAL LITERATURE:
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REVIEW

Aarons, L. (1976). Sleep-assisted instruction. Illinois Department of Mental Health and Developmental Disabilities. Chicago. Psychological Bulletin, 83 (1), pp 1-40.

Louis Aarons states that the differences in results obtained from studies on sleep learning, can be explained by differences in procedures and the lack of an established criterion for sleep.
From his research, Aarons deduced that the conditions necessary for effective sleep-learning are; low voltage EEG sleep patterns, positive motivation, meaningful learning materials, coordination with wake-learning activities and extended training.

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Adam G. (1978). Visceroception, awareness and behavior. In G.E. Schwartz and D. Shapiro (Eds.) Consciousness and Self-regulation, Vol. 2, pp 199-213. Chichester, Wiley.

From his research, Adam found that:

1. Without any awareness of an intestinal stimulus (i.e. the inflating of a balloon lodged in the duodenum), the latter evoked an EEG arousal response.

2. The inflation of a similar intestinal balloon, which had been located 15 cm away from the first, resulted in renewed blocking of the EEG. This occurred inspite of the eventual habituation to the first stimulus.

Findings 1 and 2 demonstrate cortical discrimination of the spatial separation between two subliminal visceral stimuli.

3. When subliminal electric shocks were delivered to the cervix uteri of human subjects, there was, once again, electrographic evidence of cortical discrimination without awareness.

With finding 3 however, it was possible to bring eventual awareness of the cervical stimuli by using verbally mediated biofeedback.

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Adams, J.K. (1957). Laboratory studies of behavior with awareness. Psychological Bulletin, 54, pp 383-405.
In this article Adams summarizes the findings of 76 earlier studies of behavior without awareness.
From his research Adam concludes that subjects have been able to discriminate among many types of auditory and visual stimuli presented below the threshold of awareness to a degree greater than chance.

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Adams, T.L. (1986). Subliminal self improvement. East Detroit: Adams Life Enhancement Programs.

Terry Adams covers the evolution of subconscious learning, hypnosis, and subliminal communication in advertising and self-improvement.

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Adams, V. (1982, May). Mommy and I are one. Psychology Today, 16 (5), pp 24-36.

Virginia Adams examines the research which has been carried out on subliminal perception.
The work of Lloyd Silverman is emphasized.
Silverman has conducted or directed more than 50 studies demonstrating that the subliminal presentation of emotionally charged messages can trigger unconscious thoughts and feelings and thus alter behavior.
It is Silverman who used a tachistoscope (apparatus for brief exposure of visual stimuli) to subliminally project words such as, "Mommy and I are one."
It was from his research that Silverman derived the theory of psychodynamic activation. This theory states that wish related subliminal stimuli have the power to activate psychodynamic processes - processes in which unconscious wishes, fantasies, anxieties and defensive operations - effect overt behavior.

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Adamson, R., Henke, P. & O'Donovan, D. (1969). Avoidance conditioning following preadaptation to weak shock. Psychonomic Science, 14 (3), pp 119-121.

Robert Adamson, Peter Henke and Denis O'Donovan preadapted four groups of rats to no shock, 0.004, 0.008 and 0.02 ma.
The rats were then conditioned in a jump box to 0.03 ma. shock preceded by a bell.
The 0.004 and 0.008 groups required significantly fewer trials.
The results were related to those of studies using subliminal anchor stimuli with human subjects.

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Aiba, T.S. (1963). Can the absolute threshold be conditioned? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, pp 233-9.

In this study, Aiba states that the absolute threshold can be altered by conditioning.

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Ainsworth, L.L. (1989). "Problems with subliminal perception." Journal of Business & Psychology 3(3): 361-365.

The Author suggests that popular accounts of subliminal perception omit critical details and he discusses the results of such omissions.

Allen, G.J. & Condon, T.J. (1982). Whither subliminal psychodynamic activation? A reply to Silverman. University of Connecticut, Storrs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (2), pp 131 133. ISSN: 0021-843X

George Allen and Thomas Condon reply to comments by L.H. Silverman on their earlier criticisms of subliminal symbiotic stimulation as a clinical adjunct to systematic desensitization.
The authors state that none of the "contradictory" evidence deals with desensitization or any other treatment for phobic anxiety.
The authors believe that the alternative explanations Silverman derives from the new data are based on an arbitrary and simplistic method of data aggregation that lacks consistency across investigations.
As a result, the authors state that the resulting selective bias severely reduces the explanatory power of these alternative possibilities. As such the authors still believe that stimulation of unconscious merging fantasies is superfluous in desensitization.

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Allison, J. (1963). Cognitive structure and receptivity to low intensity stimulation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, pp 132-8.

Research by Allison has shown that a relaxed state favors subliminal determination. However, this is only true of right hemisphericity subjects.
For a subliminal stimulus to be effective, there must be no competing cognitive structure"
There is clear support for the hypothesis that, a cognitive structure which allows for less logical, less differentiated elements, can better permit the incorporation of new stimuli.
Subliminal effects are maximized by having the subject in a state of relaxed passivity."

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Allport, D.A. (1980). Patterns and actions and attention and performance. In G.L. Claxton (Ed.) New Directions in Cognitive Psychology. Chapters 2 and 4. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Allport states that there are certain rules which govern the interplay between memory, motivation and action.
These rules are either acquired or innate.

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Anderson, A., Fries, I. & Smith, G.J.W. (1970). Change in after image and spiral after-effect serials due to anxiety caused by subliminal threat. Scandinavian Journal Of Psychology, 11 (1), pp 7-16.

Alf Anderson, Ingrid Fries and Gudmund Smith performed an experiment which involved the serial projection of negative afterimages, combined with the aftereffects of a rotating spiral.
In the middle of the sequence, the experimental subjects were subjected to subliminal threats by means of a metacontrast technique.
The results were as predicted and differed markedly from the results in the control groups.

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Anderson, A., Nilson, A., Ruuth, E. & Smith, G.J.W. (1970). Change in after-image and after effect serials due to anxiety caused by subliminal threat. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, pp 7-16.

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Anderson, A., Nilson, A., Ruuth, E., & Smith, G.J.W. (1972) Visual after effects and the individual as an adaptive system. Lundi: Gleerup.
Andersson, Nilson, Ruuth and Smith demonstrated that a threatening stimulus masked by metacontrast may affect the color and duration of post-stimulus phenomena, such as after-images and the spiral after-effect.
In these studies, the influence of unconsciously registered meaning on a meaningless perceptual experience suggests that the subliminal stimulus was acting upon perceptual processes rather than response behavior.

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Antell, M. (1969). The effect of subliminal activation of sexual and aggressive drive derivatives on literary creativity. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30, p. 3859B.

Antell reported positive results in an investigation which replicates Silverman's dart experiment.

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Antell, M.J. (1970). The effect of priming and the subliminal presentation of sexual and aggressive stimuli on tests of creativity. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30 (8-B), pp 3859-3860.

Maxine Antell tested the effects of the subliminal activation of sexual and aggressive drives on creativity.

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Antell, M.J., & Goldberger, L. (1978). The effects of subliminally presented sexual and aggressive stimuli on literary creativity. Lund University. Psychological Research Bulletin, 18 (7), p. 20. ISSN: 0348-3673.

Maxine Antell and Leo Goldberger examined the effects of sexual and aggressive stimuli on creativity.
Two groups of subjects (creative and noncreative) received three conditions; sexual, aggressive and neutral stimulation.
On the Remote Associates Test, creative and noncreative groups did not differ on a baseline measurement.
Combining the groups gave results which showed that drive activation did facilitate creativity, and that sexual activation was superior to aggressive activation for this purpose.
In a task composing metaphors, drive activation was disruptive to performance.
It was found that aggressive activation was more disruptive than sexual stimulation, and that the noncreative group was more susceptible to such disruption than the creative group.

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Arey, L.B. (1960). The indirect representation of sexual stimuli by schizophrenic and normal subject. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 61 (3), pp 424-41.

In this study, it was shown that information presented below the awareness threshold tended to evoke semantically related responses.
The study required normal and schizophrenic males to guess the nature of tachistoscopically exposed sexual and neutral pictures.
While both groups gave symbolic responses to the subliminal stimuli, the normal males reflected positive attitudes and schizophrenics reflected negative attitudes toward sex.
This study showed that subliminal effects have unique characteristics different from effects of supraliminal stimuli.

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Ariam, S. (1980). The effects of subliminal symbiotic stimuli in Hebrew on academic performances of Israeli high school students. (Doctoral dissertation, New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (11-A), p. 5782.

Sima Ariam found that the use of subliminal symbiotic stimuli improved the academic performance of Israeli high school students.

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Ariam, S & Siller, J. (1982). Effects of subliminal oneness stimuli in Hebrew on academic performance of Israeli high school students: further evidence on the adaptation-enhancing effects of symbiotic fantasies in another culture using another language. New York University. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (5), pp 343-349. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Sima Ariam and Jerome Siller observed the effects of subliminal oneness stimuli in Hebrew on the academic performance of Israeli high school students.
This study provides evidence about the therapeutic effects of symbiotic fantasies in another culture using another language.
The subjects were 72 Israeli 10th graders (matched for sex, math class and previous math grades) randomly assigned to 4 treatment groups.
It was decided before the study to eliminate from the data analysis any students who were not from a Hebrew-speaking home, any students who could not be matched with other students on the three variables, and any student who had sporadic attendance during the six-week period of the study due to illness, etc.
Each group was tachistoscopically presented with subliminal exposures to one of four Hebrew translations of printed stimuli; "Mommy and I are one" (2 versions), "My teacher and I are one" and a neutral stimulus, "People are walking in the street."
Each subject received subliminal stimulation four times a week over a six-week period.
Achievement tests administered six weeks apart showed that the groups exposed to either version of "Mommy and I are one" exhibited significantly higher scores than either of the other groups.
There was no difference in the achievement tests administered to the groups exposed to the subliminal stimuli "My teacher and I are one and "People walking in the street".
Neither version of mommy and I are one was superior to the other.
The results support the hypothesis that the adaptation-enhancing effects of the symbolic fantasy represents a general human phenomenon and are consistent with findings of other studies.
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Arzumanov Iul & Arzumanov Il (1974). Elaboration of temporary connections in man using unrecognized visual stimuli. Zh Vyssh Nerv Deiat., 24 (5), pp 917-923. Language: RUSSIAN.

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Asciutto, C. L. (1991). The effects of subliminal stimulation on the interpretation of ambiguous sentences and figures, California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego, US.
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Ashley, D. (1993). The effect of subliminally-presented reinforcing stimuli on factual material, U Southern California, US.
In this study, the researcher used the "Taylor method" to embed visual affirmations. Results showed a positive correlation suggesting that the subliminally reinforced factual material increased students scores on a final exam.
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Athens, A. (1973, December). Beware, here comes the mind manipulators. Family Health, pp 38 42.

Art Athens discusses the use of subliminal technology for reducing retail theft.

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Augenbraun, H.R. (1983). The effect of subliminal activation of unconscious fantasies in the treatment of juvenile-onset and adult-onset obesity. Memphis State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (12-B), p. 4134. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Hedy Augenbraun examined the effect of subliminal activation of unconscious fantasies in the treatment of weight reduction for females with juvenile- and adult- onset obesity.

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Aurell, C.G. (1979, October). Perception: A model comprising two modes of consciousness. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 49 (2), pp 431-444.

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Averback, E. & Coriell, A.S. (1961). Short term memory in vision. Bell System Technical Journal, 40, pp 309-28.

In this study, it was found subjects may continue to obtain information from a subliminal stimulus for a brief period after the tachistoscopic exposure has ended.

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Babighian, G. (1969). Behavior and clinical importance of various subliminal tests in Meniere's disease. Minerva Otorinolaringol, 19 (4), pp 215-217. ISSN: 0026-4938, Language: ITALIAN.

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Bagby, P.K. (1985). The effect of symbiotic and Oedipal subliminal stimuli on field independence and competitive tasks. University of Nevada, Reno. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (12-B, pt 1), p. 3927. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Patricia Bagby examined the effect of symbiotic and Oedipal subliminal stimuli on field independence and competitive tasks in college students.

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Baker, L.E. (1937a). The influence of subliminal stimuli upon verbal behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20.

Lynn Baker sets out the influence of priming on verbal behavior.

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Baker, L.E. (1937b). The pupillary response conditioned to subliminal auditory stimuli. Doctoral Dissertation, Vol W1937, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Lynn Baker examined the conditioning of the pupillary response by subliminal auditory stimuli.

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Balay J. & Shevrin, H. (1988). The psychodynamic activation method, a critical review. American Psychologist, 43 (3), pp 161-174.

Jennifer Balay and Howard Shevrin review the psychodynamic activation method.
Researchers claim that the psychodynamic activation theory has been successfully tested experimentally with the use of specially constructed subliminal stimuli.
In this review, Balay and Shevrin claim that Silverman's work has internally inconsistent results with few attempts at exact replication.
The authors state that Silverman has expanded the applications of the method without carefully establishing the conditions under which results could be reliably obtained.
Balay and Shevrin discuss the weaknesses in the methodology used for the research programs.
There are also theoretical concerns about;

(a) the assumption that subliminal generic messages are consistent with the psychoanalytic theory regarding the nature of unconscious conflict, and

(b) the assumption that subliminal stimuli can activate unconscious conflict.

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Balay, J. and H. Shevrin (1989). "SPA is subliminal, but is it psychodynamically activating?" American Psychologist 44(11): 1423-1426. Responds to comments by J. Weinberger regarding the work of Silverman. The authors point out that their work took a closer look at the theoretical assumptions underlying the specific nature of subliminal stimuli and how it might activate conflict related unconscious fantasies.
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Balay, J. S. (1987). The role of aggression in bipolar affective disorder: a subliminal approach. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (4-B), p. 1145.

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Balota, D.A. (1982). Automatic and attentional activation in semantic and episodic memory: Implications for the utility of conscious awareness. University of South Carolina. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (12-B, Pt 1), p. 4952. ISSN: 0419-4209.

In this study, David Balota investigated the influence of a pattern-masked subliminal stimulus on long-term memory and response latency on lexical decisions.
Using the subliminal stimulus it was possible to produce activation in semantic memory. However it was not possible to direct conscious attention in long-term memory.

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Baldwin, R.B. (1974). Kinetic art - use of subliminal stimulation of visual perception. Leonardo, 7 (1), pp 1-5.

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Bancroft, W.J. (1976). Suggestology and suggestopedia; The theory of the Lozanov method. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 132857).

Jane Bancroft discusses the theory of the Lozanov method.
To be understood properly suggestology and suggestopedia should be considered in relation to yoga, Soviet and western work in suggestion and psychotherapy, the Russian school of physiological psychology and the Soviet concept of the unconscious, Soviet linguistics and pedagogy.
Suggestology investigates the subsensory signals or subliminal stimuli which come from the physical or social environment and which are absorbed into the unconscious mind before receiving a conscious expression. Suggestion, especially spoken suggestion, activates the reserve capacities of the mind or the memory.
Suggestopedia increases memorization capacities. Hypermnesia is facilitated by relaxation techniques (derived from yoga and autogenic therapy) which increase the subject's suggestibility to spoken suggestions or unconscious stimuli.
As lack of scientific data in "Suggestopedia" may lead to a negative reaction to the Lozanov thesis, Bancroft suggests translating the underlying original ideas and reconstructing the statistical evidence in accordance with the more rigorous and less ideologically oriented methods used in western science.

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Banretti-Fuchs, K.M. (1967). Perception without awareness. Acta Psychologie, 26 (2), pp 148 160.

This paper examines visual perception with subliminal stimulation.

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Barber, P.J. (1977). Experimenter bias against subliminal perception? A rejoinder. University of London, Birkbeck College. British Journal of Psychology, 68 (3), pp 281-82.

Paul Barber replies to criticisms regarding his replication of three subliminal perception experiments.
The argument that the replications were less sensitive to subliminal perception effects than the original experiment is discussed with regards to experimenter bias and instrument sensitivity.

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Barber P.J. (1982). Perceptual defence: Attempted replication using the dark adaptation paradigm. A rejoinder. University of London, Birkbeck College, England. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 36 (3) pp 345-348. ISSN: 0008-4255.

Paul Barber discusses criticisms by A.G. Worthington (1964) regarding the replications by the present author and C. de la Mahotiere using the dark-adaptation paradigm for perceptual defense.
Barber's reasons for choosing this paradigm to replicate rather than a later version is explained, as are the reasons for the failure to replicate.
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Barber, P.J. & Rushton, J.P. (1975). Experimenter bias and subliminal perception. University of London, Birkbeck College, England. British Journal of Psychology, 66 (3), pp 357-372.

Paul Barber and J. Philippe Rushton addressed the question that subliminal perception may be due, in part, to experimenter bias effects.
Studies by G.J. Smith et al (1959) and D.P. Spence & B. Holland (1962) were therefore replicated with the experimenters tested under blind and not-blind conditions.
Although there were diffuse Experimenter effects, there was not strong evidence to support the experimenter bias hypothesis.

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Barchas, P.R. & Perlaki, K.M. (1986). Processing of preconsciously acquired information measured by hemispheric asymmetry and selection accuracy. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100 (3), pp 343-349. ISSN: 0735-7044.

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of instruction types on hemispheric activation and accurate selection of spatial stimuli that had previously been presented at a subliminal level.
The results supported the hypothesis that analytical subjects would be more likely to engage the parietal region of their left hemisphere and holistic subjects would favor relative activation of the right parietal region.
The findings are discussed in terms of a memory model of information processing.

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Barenklau, K.E. (1981). Using subliminal in technical training. Training, 18 (12), pp 50-51. ISSN: 0095-5892.

It has been seen through subliminal advertising that people can be taught to respond positively to very brief images. Keith Barenklau explains how this technique may be used effectively in some kinds of technical training.
The human brain processes information in very short periods of time - perhaps 1/1000th of a second. Experience has shown that a high level of detail can be built up in memory, along with highly specific learning responses to images.
A training technique based on minimal perception was first developed at Ohio State University during World War 2. At exposures of 1/100th of a second, U.S. Navy gunners were trained to identify more than 2,000 silhouettes at one sitting without a mistake.
The major equipment involved in the training technique based on minimal perception is the tachistoscope, a device which regulates the duration of the flashed image. A tachistoscope mounted on a slide projector is all that is needed for this kind of instruction.
Short training sessions, of not more than 20 minutes, have proven to be the best. The learning requires intense concentration. The tachistoscope has been successfully used in teaching student drivers to recognize and respond quickly to potential vehicle collision situations.

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Bargh, J.A., Bond, R.N., Lombardi, W.J. & Tota, M.E. (1986). The addictive nature of chronic and temporary sources of construct accessibility. New York University. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 50 (5), pp 869-878. ISSN: 0022-3514.

John Bargh, Ronald Bond, Wendy Lombardi and Mary Tota investigated the joint influence of long- and short-term sources of accessibility on impression formation.
Subjects with or without a long-term, chronically accessible construct for either kindness or shyness were first exposed subliminally to either 0 or 80 trait-related words. Subjects then read a behavioral description that was ambiguously relevant to the primed trait dimension, and they rated the target on several trait scales.
For both the kind and the shy trait conditions, chronic accessibility and subliminal priming reliably and independently increased the extremity of the impression ratings.
Results support a model in which long- and short-term sources of accessibility combine additively to increase the likelihood of the construct's use.
The subliminal priming effect appeared to be a general and pervasive phenomenon, insofar as it occurred for both an evaluatively positive and an evaluatively neutral trait dimension, and for subjects without, as well as with, a chronically accessible construct for the primes.
Implications for the nature of construct accessibility and the generality of automatic influences on social perception are discussed.

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Bargh, J. A. (1992). Does subliminality matter to social psychology? Awareness of the stimulus versus awareness of its influence. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 236-255.

(From a chapter)> The author asserts that it makes no difference how the information is processed, aware or unaware, but what does matter is the influence of the subliminality and whether the individual is aware of the ways in which the stimulus is interpreted.

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Barkoczi, I., Sera, L. & Komlosi, A. (1983). Relationships between functional asymmetry of the hemispheres, subliminal perception and some defence mechanisms in various experimental settings. Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 26 (1), pp 1-20 ISSN: 0033-
2852.

I. Barkoczi, L. Sera and A. Komlosi studied the relationship between functional asymmetry of the hemispheres, subliminal perception and some defense mechanisms in various experimental settings.
The subjects participated in 2 experiments with different lateral eye-movement situation in order to examine the role of the 2 hemispheres in the processing of emotional stimuli. In the interval between their participation in the 2 experiments, the subjects were administered the Repression Sensitization Scale and the Defense Mechanism Inventory.
The 2 experiments involved recognition of aversively preconditioned stimuli in a divided field and P.H. Bakan's (1971) lateral eye-movement questioning method.
The results indicate that several indices obtained in the experimental situations (i.e., lateral eye movement, verbal reaction time, GSR, EEG) showed the right hemisphere to be superior in the preprocessing of emotionally loaded stimuli. The extent of this superiority, however, depended on degree of hemisphericity.
The findings support the formation of different defense mechanisms on the basis of learning. An interpretation of subception and defense mechanisms is presented.

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Barratt, P.E.H. & Beh, H.C. (1964), Subliminal perception of the concept of vigilance. Australian Journal of Psychology, pp 107-119.

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Barratt, P.E.H. & Herd, J.H. (1964). Subliminal conditioning of the alpha rhythm. Australian Journal of Psychology, 16, pp 9-19.

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Battersby, W.S. & Defabaugh, G.L., (1969). Neural limitations of visual excitibility: after effects of subliminal stimulation. Vision Research, 9 (7), pp 757-768. ISSN: 0042-6989.

This paper examines the after-effects of subliminal stimulation on visual perception.

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Bauer, W.D. (1986). The effects of conditional and unconditional subliminal stimuli on intrinsic motivation. University of Rochester. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (8-B), pp 2794 2795. ISSN: 0419-4209.

This study attempts to rule out the Self Perception accounts of findings in the intrinsic motivation literature. Behavioral and affective indices of intrinsic motivation were demonstrated to be effected outside of awareness. The Subliminal Psychodynamic Activation Method was used to present the experimental intervention outside of awareness.
Four groups of subjects were used, each receiving one of four messages: "Mommy and I are one"; "Mommy and I are one when I'm good"; "Mommy and I are one all the time" and the control "People are walking on the path".
Of particular interest were the negative emotions (ie. fear, shame and anxiety) reported in the "Mommy and I are one" group.
The results are discussed in terms of the implications for developmental origins of styles of self regulation as well as the importance of subject and dosage factors in responses to subliminally presented merging stimuli in the treatment control.

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Baumeister, A. & Kistler, D. (1975). Facilitation of retention by white noise. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 20, pp 13-31.

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Bayuk, M. & Bayuk, B.S. (1980). Suggestology and suggestopedia: A selective bibliography of western sources. ERID ED 192556 FL011596.

Milla Bayuk and Barry Bayuk compiled a bibliography with more than 200 titles, including addendum with 22 titles lists:

1) sources dealing with psychological and physiological research on the brain and it's function in learning, and

2) works treating subliminal suggestion and perception, and

3) papers on the influence of music on learning and behavior.

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Beatty, S. E. and D. I. Hawkins (1989). "Subliminal stimulation: Some new data and interpretation." Journal of Advertising 18(3): 4-8.

Becker, H.C. (1976) Subliminal communication and hypnosis. Presentation to the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, 25th Annual Scientific Meeting. October 24-30. Denver.

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Becker, H.C., Chamberlain, S.B., Heisse, J.W. Jr. & Marino, D.R. (1982). Subliminal communication and hypnosis. Paper presented at the Conference of the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis. Denver, October.

In this paper evidence is presented that shows how subliminal communication offers a broad spectrum of approaches for "human resource potentiation."
As subliminal stimuli appear to reach directly to the primitive and unconscious levels of the mind, this suggests a wide range of therapeutic, educational and industrial applications.
Supermarkets in the New Orleans area reported dramatic results using a "little black box" that delivers messages over a store's music below the threshold of normal hearing.
A typical black-box message repeats, "I am honest; I will not steal. If I steal, I'll get caught." According to Becker, the message "activates psychostatic unconscious wishes and desires" in the potential thief and creates a conflict between a conscious drive to steal and the unconscious, innate aversion to theft.

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Becker, H.C. & Charbonnet, K.D. (1980). Applications of subliminal video and audio stimuli in therapeutic, educational, industrial and commercial settings. Eighth Annual Northeast Bioengineering Conference, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, March 28, 1980.

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Becker, H.C., Charbonnet, K.D., Warren III, E.S., Corrigan. R.E., Schmidt III, L.F., Griffin, Jr., C.E., Penick III, R.M. & Ryder III, F.B. (1980). New subliminal processors for therapy, industry, education. 33rd Annual Conference of Engineering in Medicine and Biology (ACEMB), Washington, D.C., September 30-October 3.

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Becker, H.C., Corrigan, R.E., Elder, S.T., Tallant, J.D. & Goldstein, M. (1965, August 22 27). Subliminal communication: Biological engineering considerations. Digest of the 6th International Conference of Medical Electronics and Biological Engineering, pp 452-453. Tokyo.

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Becker, H.C. & Elder, S.T. (1966). Can subliminal perception be useful to the psychiatrist? Excerpta Medica (International Congress, Series No. 117). Abstract of paper presented to the IV World Congress of Psychiatry, Madrid, Spain, September 5-11.

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Becker, H.C. & Glanzer, H.H. (1978). Subliminal communication: Advances in audiovisual engineering applications for behavior therapy and education. Proceedings of the 1978 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Region 3 Conference. Atlanta, April 10-12.

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Becker, H.C., Jewell, J.F. & Alito, P. (1977, March 13017). Video and audio signal monitors/processors for subliminal communication in weight control. Proceedings of the 12th Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), San Francisco.

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Becker, H.C. & McDonagh. E.W. (1978). Subliminal communication (subliminal psychodynamic activation) in rehabilitative and preventive medicine. Proceedings of the 1978 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Region 3 Conference. Atlanta, April 10 12.
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Begg, I. M., D. R. Needham, et al. (1993). "Do backward messages unconsciously affect listeners? No." Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 47(1): 1-14.

The authors studies the influence of reverse subliminal messages and determined that the forward meaning of backward statements does not leak through.

Beisgen, R.T., Jr. & Gibby, R.G., Jr. (1969). Autonomic and verbal discrimination of a subliminally learned task. Virginia Commonwealth University. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 29 (2), pp 503-507. ISSN: 0031-5125.

Robert Beisgen, Jr. and Robert Gibby, Jr. examines subliminal perception by employing classical conditioning techniques at a subliminal level.
The subjects were presented with ten nonsense syllable at a subliminal level, five of which were paired with an electric shock.
Subjects were then administered four tests for discrimination.
It was found that the subception effect described in prior studies can be empirically verified and that classical conditioning can take place at a level below conscious awareness.

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Bell, P.D. (1986). The interspersal technique of Milton Erickson: Testing an operational definition. Fielding Institute. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (10-B), pp 3586-3587. ISSN: 0419 4209.

In this study, Paul Bell tested the hypothesis that an embedded message in a taped story would impact subjects differently than the same story without an embedded message.
Hostile messages were embedded within a fairy tale, and the volume level of the hostile/aggressive words was systematically lowered or raised in the context of a the story.
Skin conductance, semantic differential scores, and a content analysis were used to measure subject's responses to the embedded hostile message.
The hypothesized hostile message had no measurable effect on the subjects.
The operational definition of the interspersal technique was shown to be inadequate.
Recommendations were made for specific and systematic research into embedded auditory messages and the interspersal technique of Dr. Milton Erickson.

***
Bellack. A.S. & Williamson, D.A. (1982). Obesity and anorexia nervosa in D.M. Doleys, R.L. Meredith and A.R. Ciminero (Eds). Behavioral medicine: Assessment and treatment strategies. New York, Plenum.

Bellach and Williamson reported a positive correlation between subliminal suggestion and weight control.

***

Beloff, J. (1973). The subliminal and the extrasensory. University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Parapsychology Review, 4 (3), pp 23-27.

John Beloff compares ESP and subliminal perception.
ESP differs from subliminal perception in that ESP requires no sensory contact.
He states that the two are similar in the way they decode, process, and then shift information from unconscious to conscious awareness.
It is concluded that ESP may be regarded as a compromise between the mind omniscient and awareness filtered of everything not pertaining to biological needs.

***

Bender, B.G. (1973). Spatial interactions between the red- and green-sensitive color mechanisms of the human visual system. Imperial College, Applied Optics Section, London, England. Visual Research, 13 (12), pp 2205-2218.

The effects of subliminal annuli on the increment threshold of a central test spot, and the supraliminal annuli on the flicker threshold of a central test were used to psychophysically study spatial interactions in the visual system.
Previous evidence indicates that subliminal interactions occur at a level before the optic chiasma, while supraliminal interactions occur more centrally. Interactions were therefore tested at two levels in the visual system.
The visual stimuli were selected to stimulate individual spectral classes of color mechanisms, particularly interactions between red- and green-sensitive channels of foveal vision.
For both types of measurement interactions between center and surround regions of receptive fields occurred only between like spectral response mechanisms, whereas interactions within the center of receptive fields also occurred between the spectral mechanisms.

***

Benes, K. M., T. B. Gutkin, et al. (1990). "The effects of mellow and frenetic music on reported cognitions resulting from auditory subliminal messages." Journal of General Psychology 117(1): 83-89.

The authors report on the results of a study employing subliminal messages with both frenetic and mellow music. Subjects reported more word related imagery in the mellow music despite the absence of a subliminal correspondent.
***

Bengtsson, H. (1991). "Relationships between perceptual defence reactions and subjective tendencies in the phenomenal representation of facial displays of affect."

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 32(1): 38-47.

This study examined nonveridical reports of a stimulus-motif when presented subliminally. Results suggest a correspondence between the individuals perceptual distortions as a result of the threatening stimuli presented and their scheme of aggression and threat.
***

Ben-Hur, A. (1979). The relationship of systematic desensitization and the activation of symbiotic merging fantasy to speech anxiety reduction among college students.New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (5-B), pp 2351-2352.

Amos Ben-Hur compares the relationship of systematic desensitization and the activation of symbiotic merging fantasy to speech anxiety reduction.
***

Benoit, S. C. and R. L. Thomas (1992). "The influence of expectancy in subliminal perception experiments." Journal of General Psychology 119(4): 335-341.

Subjects listened to music without subliminal information. Believers in subliminal perception reported hearing subliminal messages more than non-believers and additionally reported greater mood changes.
***

Benson, H. (1979). The mind/body effect. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Herbert Benson shows that man has the power to influence the sympathetic nervous system, which is generally considered involuntary.

***

Berlin, P.D. (1984, March). An evaluation: Can subliminal messages be used to control shrinkage? Peter Berlin Report. (Price Waterhouse Newsletter), pp 5-6.

Peter Berlin argues in favor of using subliminal messages to control shrinkage.
It has been found that by playing inaudible messages shoplifting and employee theft is deterred.

***

Bernstein, B.R. (1986). The effects of subliminal symbiotic and oedipal stimuli on weight loss in obese women. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, (8-B), 2795. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Bonnie Bernstein examined the effects of subliminal symbiotic and oedipal stimuli on weight loss in obese women.

***

Bernstein, I. H., V. Bissonnette, et al. (1989). "Semantic priming: Subliminal perception or context?" Perception & Psychophysics 45(2): 153-161.

This study demonstrated that masked priming can effect the processing of subsequent processing of semantically related targets.
***

Bernstein, I. H. and K. R. Welch (1991). "Awareness, false recognition, and the Jacoby Whitehouse effect." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 120(3): 324-328.

This study sought to replicate the so-called Jacoby-Whitehouse effect. The authors suggest two specific nonsubliminal mechanisms as possible explanations for the unconsious processing of context stimuli and resulting false or true recognition.
***

Bernstein, J.H. & Eriksen, C.W. (1965). Effects of "subliminal" prompting on paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 1, pp 33-38.
***

Berry, D.M. (1985). Effects of educative/support groups and subliminal psychodynamic activation on bulimia in college women. University of California, Davis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (11-B), p. 3612. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Diana Berry examined the effects of group therapy and subliminal psychodynamic activation on bulimia.

***
Berry, D. M. and S. I. Abramowitz (1989). "Educative/support groups and subliminal psychodynamic activation for bulimic college women." International Journal of Eating Disorders 8(1): 75-85.

Subliminal psychodynamic activation effects were observed in this study evaluating effects on bingeing and emotional distress. The subliminal stimuli appeared to exert a direct treatment effect on both restrained eating and emotional distress.
***

Besnard, D. and A. Channouf (1994). "Subliminal perception of familiar stimuli and solving easy problems." Anuario de Psicologia 62(3): 41-53.

This study evaluated the effects of subliminally presented familiar and unfamiliar faces and words.
***

Bevan, W. (1964a). Subliminal stimulation: a pervasive problem for psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 61 (2), pp 84-92.

***

Bevan, W. (1964b). Contemporary problems in adaption level theory. Psychological Bulletin, 61 (3), pp 161-187.

***

Bevan, W. & Pritchard, J.F. (1963). Effect of "subliminal" tones upon the judgment of loudness. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66.

***

Bianki, V.L. & Kurochkin, V.A. (1976). Callosal influences on the focus of maximum activity in the visual cortex during subliminal stimulation. Biol. Nauki., (7), pp 76-81. ISSN: DA3B 0000, Language: RUSSIAN.

Bianki & Kurochkin examined the effect of subliminal stimulation on the influence of the Corpus Callosum on the focus of maximum activity in the visual cortex.

***

Black, R.W. & Bevan, W. (1960). The effect of subliminal shock upon the judged intensity of weak shock. American Journal of Psychology, 73.
***

Blakkan, R. (1982). Fear and loving in regulation land: Liquor marketers learn to live within the rules and like it/what some of the fuss is about. Advertising Age, 53 (34), pp M-22-23, M-26. ISSN: 0001-8899.

Renee Blakkan discusses the liquor business in the USA.
Due to the fear of even more government regulations and maybe even the return to the pre prohibition abuses, the liquor market is amongst the most tightly controlled and self-restricted industries in the U.S.
Among the areas under discussion for changes in the federal laws regulating the advertising and marketing of alcohol is the use of subliminal advertising.

***

Blasdel, P. F. (1989). Subliminal psychodynamic activation and academic achievement, U Oklahoma, US.
***

Block, M.P. & Vanden Bergh, B.G. (1985). Can you sell subliminal messages to consumers? Michigan State University. Journal of Advertising, 14 (3), pp 59-62. ISSN: 0091-3367.

Martin Block and Bruce Vanden Bergh conducted a telephone survey of 330 adults to determine consumer attitudes toward the use of subliminal stimulation techniques in a self improvement product.
Consumers responses reflected a concern about being influenced to do something they did not want to do.
The study also found that although consumers believed subliminal advertising could affect behavior, they were also skeptical toward the use of subliminal messages for the purpose of self improvement.
The study found that those consumers most favorable toward the subliminal technique had prior experience with computers and video equipment and appeared to be less educated, younger, and more often unmarried than those subjects less favorable toward the subliminal technique.
Those found to be most aware and concerned about the use of subliminal advertising were found to be white, well-educated and affluent, whereas those more favorable to the use of subliminal techniques for self-improvement were found to be less educated and to be experiencing some family problems.

***

Bloomquist, D. W. (1985). Teaching sensation and perception: Its ambiguous and subliminal aspects. The G. Stanley Hall lecture series, Vol. 5. C. J. S. Anne M. Rogers, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, US: 161-203.

Identifies problems inherent to the study of perception. Discusses subliminal advertsising, concepts of sensation and perception, and ambiguous figures.
***

Blum, G.S. (1975) Reply to Jennings and George. University of California, Santa Barbara. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41 (3), pp 957-958.

Gerald Blum criticizes L.B. Jennings and S.G. George's attempted replication of his study on perceptual vigilance ad defense.
He stresses that,

(a) the replication was not satisfactory because of shortcomings in method, including use of a different set of stimuli and that,

(b) Jennings and George missed the theoretical point that a subjects report is the result of a perceptual-cognitive sequence of events.

***

Boardman, W. K. & Gladstone S. (1962). Effects of subliminal anchors upon judgments of size. Perceptual Motor Skills, 14.

***

Bonke, B. and M. Jelicic (1991). "On unconscious processes." Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie en Haar Grensgebieden 46(2): 51-67.

The authors provide an overview of subliminal perception, unconsious motivations and implicit memory.
***

Bonnet, E.B. (1974). The utilization of audio tapes in hypnosis. Journal of the American Institute of Hypnosis. 15 (2), pp 82-87, 92.

Eldon Bonnet discusses the use of audio tapes in hypnoanalysis.
Three areas of utilization are discussed:

(a) aid in self-improvement,

(b) use during times of sleep, and

Bonnet argues that there is no such thing as "sleep learning," as the term is commonly used. He therefore discusses and recommends audio tape "twilight state" imprinting programs.

***

Borgeat, F. (1983). Psychophysiological effects of two different relaxation procedures: Progressive relaxation and subliminal relaxation. Louis-H, Lafontaine Hospital, Psychiatric Research Center, Montreal, Canada. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa, 8 (4), pp 181-185. ISSN: 0702-8466.

Francois Borgeat compared the physiological effects of progressive relaxation and subliminal relaxation. The experimental technique involved the audition of soft music subliminal suggestions of relaxation.
The subjects participated in a four week training with these two methods in two laboratory testing sessions (one for each method).
During the training frontal EMG, heart rate, skin conductance levels, and responses were recorded. These psychological data were submitted to multivariate and univariate ANCOVAs.
The was no significant difference between the physiological effects of the two techniques.
Progressive relaxation was more effective in the reduction of EMG levels of the more anxious subjects (on the IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire).
The general lack of difference between the physiological states induced by two methods different in their procedure and in the subjective effects is interpreted in the light of the hypothesis of a common and natural "relaxation response" that can be facilitated by a large variety of techniques.

***

Borgeat, F., Chabot, R. & Chaloult, L. (1981). Subliminal perception and level of activation. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 26 (4), pp 255-259. ISSN: 0008-9824. Language: FRENCH.

Francois Borgeat, Ronald Chabot and Louis Chaloult reported positive results in clinical work with smokers, alcoholics and obese patients.
Two noteworthy studies were conducted using double blind experiments. It was found that the auditory subliminal messages influenced the level of activation on their subjects.
One study of auditory subliminal messages directed the person to act or not to act. Activation changes were estimated through a variation in Mood Adjective Check List scores.
Four of six factors on the adjective checklist were statistically significant. All six factors showed response. Two-thirds were statistically significant at the .05 level of confidence.
In the second experiment three forms of auditory subliminal stimulation were used; an emotional message, a neutral message and a pure tone.
In this study, it was found that the emotional message produced significantly different results from the other two. In other words the subliminal message, whose language is that of emotion, triggered subjective states and processed the message.
In both these experiments, the semantic content inducted responses in subjects who remained consciously unaware of it.
It was concluded that the parameters regulating subliminal response and susceptibility remain largely undefined and in need of systematic investigation.

***

Borgeat, F. & Chaloult, L. (1985). A relaxation experiment using radio broadcasts. University of Montreal, Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital, Canada. Canada's Mental Health, 33 (1), pp 11-13. ISSN: 0008-2791.

Francois Borgeat and Louis Chaloult describe a primary prevention activity in which a radio station broadcasted music in which subliminal relaxation messages had been mixed.
Also discussed are topics related to health, stress, and relaxation therapy.
A survey of 100 listeners showed that a majority had some previous experience with relaxation therapy and that most used the recordings to decrease tension and improve sleep.
The importance of communicating to the public appropriate knowledge and techniques in the area of self-care is discussed.

***

Borgeat, F., Chaloult, L. & Chabot, R. (1981). Subliminal perception: neurophysiological models and aspects of research in Quebec. Union Medical Canada, 110 (1), pp 19-22. ISSN: 0041-6959, Language: FRENCH.

***

Borgeat, F., Elie, R., Chaloult, L. & Chabot, R. (1985). Psychophysiological responses to masked auditory stimuli. Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital, Psychiatric Research Center, Montreal, Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 30 (1), pp 22-27. ISSN: 0706-7437.

The purpose of the study was to compare effects of masked auditory verbal stimuli (words masked by a dominant-sounding white noise) presented at increasing intensities on the physiological responses of 20 21-30 year old healthy women.
Subjects were presented with sexual-emotional words (rape, whore, penis) and neutral words (veil, skate, tennis) in two weekly experimental sessions.
In each two-hour session, two stimuli content were used (neutral and sexual-emotional) as well as two different sets of instructions - attendance and nonattendance to the stimuli.
The hypothesis tested was that physiological responses can be influenced by the meaning of subliminal auditory stimuli.
Verbal stimuli, masked by a 40 db white noise, were presented to the subjects at increasing intensities by increments of 5 db starting at 0 db.
At each increment physiological effects (frontal EMG, heart rate, skin conductance, and muscular activity) were measured.
In this way psychophysiological responses to stimuli below the thresholds of identification and detection were observed.
With the subjects not paying attention to the sound, the physiological effects of aggressive subliminal words were weaker than with neutral subliminal words.
This suggests that the women were protected from responding to potentially disturbing stimulus of which they were not aware.
When concentrating on the sound, this protective mechanism was less evident.

***

Borgeat, F., J. Boissonneault, et al. (1989). "Psychophysiological responses to subliminal auditory suggestions for activation." Perceptual & Motor Skills 69(3, Pt 1): 947-953.

In this study the authors masked a subliminal activation message with 40-db of white noise. Measuring subjects galvanic skin response and heart rate, the researchers found an effect on heart rate but not skin conductance.
***

Borgeat, F. & Goulet, J. (1983) Psychophysiological changes following auditory subliminal suggestions for activation and deactivation. Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital, Psychiatric Research Center, Montreal, Canada. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 56 (3), pp 759-766. ISSN: 0031-5125.

Francois Borgeat and Jean Goulet exposed 18 normal 21- to 41-year-old subjects alternately to a control situation and to 25-db activating and deactivating suggestions masked by a 40-db white noise.
Physiological measures (EMG, heart rate, skin-conductance levels and responses, and skin temperature) were recorded while subjects listened passively to the suggestions, during a stressing task that followed, and after that task.
The MANOVA showed a significant effect of the activation subliminal suggestions during and following the stressing task. This result suggests effects of consciously, unrecognized perceptions on psychophysiological responses.
Borgeat and Goulet reported positive results in clinical work with smokers, alcoholics and obese patients.

***

Borgeat, F. & Pannetier, M.F. (1982). Interest of cumulative electrodermal responses in subliminal auditory perception: preliminary study. Louis H. Lafontaine Hospital, Center de Recherche Psychiatrique, Montreal, Canada. Encephale, 8 (4), pp 487-499. ISSN: 0013-7006, Language: FRENCH.

Borgeat & Pannetier examined the usefulness of averaging electrodermal responses for research on subliminal auditory perception.
Eighteen female subjects were exposed to three kinds (emotional, neutral and 1000 Hz tone) of auditory stimulation, which were repeated six times at three intensities (detection threshold, 10 dB under this threshold and 10 dB above identification threshold). Analysis of electrodermal potential responses showed that the number of responses was related to the emotionality of subliminal stimuli presented at detection threshold but not at 10 dB under it.
The data interpretation proposed refers to perceptual defence theory.
This study indicates that electrodermal response count constitutes a useful measure for subliminal auditory perception research, but averaging those responses was not shown to bring additional information.

***

Borgeld, T. W. (1990). The effects of references to mother during early childhood using the subliminal psychodynamic activation method, U Oklahoma, US.

***

Bornstein, R.F. (1987). Subliminal mere exposure effects and conscious cognition: a study of attitude changes in response to stimuli perceived without awareness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (9-B), p. 3941.

***

Bornstein, R.F., Leone, D.R. & Galley, D.J. (1987). The generalizability of subliminal mere exposure effects: influence of stimuli perceived without awareness on social behavior. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 53 (6), pp 1070-1079.

***

Bornstein, R. F. & Masling, J.M. (1984). Subliminal psychodynamic stimulation: Implications for psychoanalytic theory and therapy. State University of New York, Buffalo. International Forum for Psychoanalysis, 1 (2), pp 187-204. ISSN: 0738-8217.

Robert Bornstein and Joseph Masling discuss the work of L.H. Silverman et al.
Topics discussed are;

1) the idea that a subliminal stimulus can affect the psychopathology of patients in analysis,

2) the difference between laboratory research and practical application in psychoanalysis,

3) the experimental manipulations of the work by Silverman, et al.

4) the assertion by Silverman at al, that the perception of the message takes place at an unconscious level, and

5) the oneness fantasies with respect to schizophrenics.

***

Bornstein, R. F. (1989). "Subliminal techniques as propaganda tools: Review and critique." Journal of Mind & Behavior 10(3): 231-262

The author suggests that the research demonstrates that subliminal messages can produce changes in attitude and behavior and therefore may have an effective role in propaganda.

***

Bornstein, R. F. (1990). Subliminal mere exposure and psychodymanic activation effects: Implications for the psychoanalytic theory of conscious and unconscious mental processes. Empirical studies of psychoanalytic theories, Vol. 3. Joseph Masling, Analytic Press, Inc, Hillsdale, NJ, US: 55-88.

The author's chapter reviews the history of subliminal research and discusses some of the methodological problems. He further examines and evaluates the psychodynamic activation research and the model for conscious/unconscious processing.

***

Bornstein, R. F. (1990). "Critical importance of stimulus unawareness for the production of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects: A meta-analytic review." Journal of Clinical Psychology 46(2): 201-210.

Used meta-analysis to access the magnitude of change in subjects produced as a result of subliminal and supraliminal drive related stimuli from 11 subliminal psychodynamic activation studies. Results support L. Silverman's hypothesis that drive related stimuli must be presented subliminally to produce subliminal psychodynamic activation.

***

Bornstein, R. F. (1992). Inhibitory effects of awareness on affective responding: Implications for the affect-cognition relationship. Emotion. Review of personality and social psychology, No. 13. Margaret S. Clark, Sage Publications, Inc, Newbury Park, CA, US: 235-255.

Bornstein's chapter in this work examines the affect-cognition relationship with respect to subliminal psychodynamic activation theory.

***

Bornstein, R. F. and T. S. Pittman, Eds. (1992). Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. New York, NY, US

, Guilford Press.

(from the jacket) This landmark volume brings together the work of the world's leading researchers in subliminal perception. This compilation marks a fundamental shift in the current study of subliminal effects: No longer in question is the notion that perception without awareness occurs. Now, the emphasis is on elucidating the parameters of subliminal effects and understanding the conditions under which stimuli perceived without awareness significantly influence affect, cognition, and behavior. /// "Perception Without Awareness" firmly establishes subliminal perception within the mainstream of psychological science. Well represented here are the two main research branches that have emerged: One directly investigates the nature of subliminal effects; the other uses subliminal techniques as tools for investigating psychological phenomena such as hypnosis, dreaming, repression, social judgment and inference, psychopathology, and symptom formation. /// Timely and thought-provoking, "Perception Without Awareness" is sure to be of enormous interest to all psychoanalytic clinicians and scholars, as well as cognitive, clinical, and social psychologists whose work touches upon issues relating to psychopathology, perception, cognition, and memory.

***

Bornstein, R. F. (1992). Subliminal mere exposure effects. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 191-210.
(from the chapter) discuss a line of research in which certain experiments fulfill the criteria put forth by the dissociation model to establish perception without awareness while simultaneously fulfilling Reingold and Merikle's (1988) direct/indirect criteria for demonstrating subliminal effects / after reviewing research on "subliminal mere exposure" (SME) effects ...I present a theoretical model of the mere exposure effect that accommodates findings in this area more completely than do existing models / preliminary tests of this new theoretical model are described, and previous research on SME effects is discussed in the context of the model / the implications of this theoretical framework for our understanding of the findings produced in other areas of subliminal perception research is discussed.

***

Bornstein, R. F. (1992). "Critical importance of stimulus unawareness for the production of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects: An attributional model." Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 180(2): 69-76.

Bornstein describes a new theory of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects.

***

Bornstein, R. F. and P. R. D'Agostino (1992). "Stimulus recognition and the mere exposure effect." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 63(4): 545-552.

The authors conducted two experiments to re-examine the mere exposure effect. Their results tended to support the mere exposure effect, showing that stimuli perceived without awareness can produce substantially stronger exposure effects than stimuli presented in a manner where full awareness processes the information.

***

Bornstein, R. F. and P. R. D'Agostino (1994). "The attribution and discounting of perceptual fluency: Preliminary tests of a perceptual fluency/attributional model of the mere exposure effect." Social Cognition 12(2): 103-128.

***

Borysenko, J. & Borysekno, M. (1983). On psychoneuroimmunology: How the mind influences health and disease...and how to make the influence beneficial. Executive Health, 19. p 10.

***
Bouchard, S.J. (1984). Effects of a self-administered subliminal-relaxation treatment on anxiety. United States International University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (6-B), p. 1906. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Susan Bouchard studied the effects of combining subliminal and relaxation training principles on anxiety via subliminal suggestions to relax.
The subjects were randomly assigned to one of four conditions:

1) subliminal-relaxation treatment,

2) subliminal symbiotic activation treatment,

3) relaxation training treatment, or

4) neutral musical stimulus control condition.

The subjects listened daily to one of four recordings for 1 day. Pre- and post-treatment scores on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) were obtained. Subjects also rated their moods daily on Likert-type scale.
It was hypothesized that

1) significant between group differences would be found, and

2) subliminal-relaxation treatment would be associated with significantly greater reductions than the other conditions.

The four groups did not differ significantly demographically or in levels of pre-treatment anxiety.
The study's hypotheses were not supported.
There was no significant between-group differences were observed in anxiety reduction.
The average reduction of the subliminal-relaxation treatment group was no significantly greater.
All four groups reduced anxiety significantly during the 10 days.

***

Bovier, P., Broekkamp, C.L. & Lloyd, K.G. (1982). Enhancing GABAergic transmission reverses the aversive state in rats induced by electrical stimulation of the periaqueductal grey region. Clinique Psychiatrique Bel-Air, Geneva, Switzerland. Brain Research, 248 (2), pp 313-320. ISSN: 0006-8993.

Phillipe Bovier, Chris Broekkamp and Kenneth Lloyd found that, when GAB agonist progabide and diazepam where given together in subliminal doses to Charles River Rats, the combination exerted a marked auto-aversive effect.

***

Bower, B. (1987). Subliminal messages: changes for the better? Science News, 129 (13), pp 156 158.

Bruce Bower's article discusses the work of Lloyd Silverman, and in particular, Silverman's use of a tachistoscope to project subliminal words.
The "Mommy and I are one" message, as used by Thomas Budzynski, is also discussed.

***

Bowersox, R.E. (1981). The theory of subliminal perception: How it relates to subliminal stimulation in advertising. Unpublished report, Clarion University of Pennsylvania.

***

Brandeis, D. & Lehmann, D. (1986). Event-related potentials of the brain and cognitive processes: Approaches and applications. Special issue: Methods in neuropsychology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland. Neuropsychologia, 24 (1), pp 151-168. ISSN: 0028-3932.

Brandeis and Lehmann argue that early event-related potential (ERP) components are valuable in clinical testing of the afferent sensory systems in the absence of anamnestic or clinical pathology.
Examples of spatial analysis show that;

1) different ERP field configurations follow the presentation of noun and verb meaning of homophone words,

2) that the ERP effects to subjective contours resemble those of attention in time course and topography,

3) that the cognitive P300 component reflects the specific stimulus location, and

4) that subliminal information influences the configuration of the late ERP fields.

***

Brannon, L. A. and T. C. Brock (1994). The subliminal persuasion controversy: Reality, enduring fable, and Polonius's weasel. Persuasion: Psychological insights and perspectives. T. C. B. Sharon Shavitt, Allyn & Bacon, Inc, Boston, MA, US: 279-293.

(from the book) popular belief in the power of subliminal manipulation appears to be increasing / ironically, the widespread belief in subliminal persuasion--despite the absence of scientific evidence--is based on the very factors that lead psychologists to doubt its effectiveness / discuss the evidence for and against subliminal persuasion and explain why popular belief in it is likely to persist indefinitely.

***

Branscomb, L. P. (1989). An exploration of the fantasy of the primary bond: Use of the subliminal psychodynamic activation method in adult women, Georgia State U, Coll of Arts & Sciences, US.

***

Brennan, S.N. (1984). The effect of subliminal separation-individuation schemas on moral reasoning and mood in depressed and non-depressed women. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (6-b), p. 1907. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Sharon Brennan examines the effect of subliminal separation-individuation conflicts on the moral reasoning and the depressive moods of female college students.

***

Brice, L., Taylor, E., Lionberger, W.J. & Morris, W.P. (1986). What you should know about subliminal perception and subliminal self-improvement tapes. Gateways Research Institute, Inc.

This booklet contains a review of literature and information to encourage use of subliminal self-help tapes.
Areas covered include;

1) what you should know about subliminal perception,

2) scientific evidence that show how subliminal messages influence behavior,

3) how you can use subliminal perception for self-improvement,

4) how Gateways make their tapes,

5) who uses subliminal tapes, and

6) questions and answers regarding the use of subliminal tapes.

***

Brody, N. (1989). "Unconscious learning of rules: Comment on Reber's analysis of implicit learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118(3): 236-238.

The author suggests a discrimination procedure to establish awareness levels and comments on the failure to do same by Reber.

***

Bromfield, R.N. (1986). Subliminal psychodynamic activation: Demonstration, oedipal factors and personality correlates. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (11-B), p. 4005. ISSN 0419-4209.

Richard Bromfield examined the effects of the subliminal tachistoscope stimulation of unconscious oedipal wishes & personality traits on the dart throwing performance of male college students.

***

Bronstein, A.A. (1977). An experimental study of internalization fantasies on schizophrenic men. Yeshiva University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37 (9-B), p. 4665.

***

Bronstein, A.A. & Rodin, G.C. (1983). An experimental study of internalization fantasies in schizophrenic men. Children's Hospital Medical Center, San Francisco, CA. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 20 (4), pp 408-416. ISSN: 0478-7013.

Abbot Bronstein and Gail Rodin explored the types of internalization fantasies involving the constructs (or concepts or fantasies) of mother that are ameliorative in schizophrenia.
Four groups of 30 subjects each received a subliminal experimental stimulus designed to activate a different fantasy of internalization as well as a subliminal neutral control message.
The experimental messages were;

1) "Mommy and I are one",

2) "Mommy and I are the same",

3) "Mommy is inside me", and

4) "Mommy and I are alike".

The control message was "People are walking."
The assessments of pathological thinking and behavior were made before and after the presentation of each stimulus.
"Mommy and I are one" was the only stimulus to be found effective in reducing pathology.
The results lend strong support to earlier findings that fantasies of oneness identification with the "good" mother are ameliorative for schizophrenics.

***

Brooks, J. (1985). The little ad that isn't there: a look at subliminal advertising. Consumer Reports, 23, pp 7-10.

In this article Brooks describes experiments by James Vicary where words were flashed on a movie screen at speeds too fast to register consciously. These words were perceived and acted upon by the subconscious mind.
In a six-week test of the technique (1957), viewers at a New Jersey movie theater were subjected to "Eat popcorn" and "Drink Coca-Cola" messages flashed on the screen every five seconds for about 1/1000 of a second whilst watching Kim Novak in the film Picnic
Intermission sales of Coca-Cola and popcorn increased by 18 percent and 58 percent respectively.
However not everyone in the theater bought these products.
Follow-up surveys showed that people who did not ordinarily eat popcorn or drink cola were not influenced to do so.

***

Brosgole, L. & Contino, A.F. (1973). Intrusion of subthreshold learning upon later performance. Psychological Reports, 32 (3, part 1), pp 795-798.

Leonard Brosgole and Angelo Contino conducted two experiments to determine the frequency with which subliminal learning intrudes on subsequent performance.
The responses from the serial learning experiments were analyzed to specify the types of intrusion.
It was found that materials from the past interfered with performance.
They found that subthreshold (not subliminal) learning may intrude on and interfere with task performance.

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Brush, J. (1982). Subliminal stimulation in asthma: Imaginal, associative and physiological effects. Boston University Graduate School. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (4-B), pp 1294 1295. ISSN 0419-4209.

Twenty asthmatic and twenty non-asthmatic subjects viewed tachistoscopic presentations, at speeds to rapid for conscious awareness, of pictures and words representing oral aggression, abandonment, mutual helpfulness, symbiotic merging, or neutral human relationships.
Following each presentation, recordings were made of subjects' ten-minute free association. The subjects also drew pictures of two people, completed a Profile of Mood State Scale and had their pulmonary airway conductance measured.
Predictions regarding specific hypotheses were not supported by significant results.
Post-hoc analyses revealed that asthmatics responded more positively than non-asthmatics to stimuli implying unity of mother and child.

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Bryant-Tuckett, R.M, (1981). The effects of subliminal merging stimuli on the academic performance of emotionally handicapped students. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (12-B Pt. 1), p. 4654. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Rose Bryant-Tuckett examined the effects of subliminal symbiotic gratification stimulation on the academic performance of emotionally disturbed adolescents.

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Bryant-Tuckett, R. & Silverman, L.H. (1984). Effects of the subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies on the academic performance of emotionally handicapped students. Free School District, Lakeside-Ramapo Union, Spring Valley NY. Journal of Counseling Psychology 31 (3), pp 295-305. ISSN: 0022-0167.

Rose-Marie Bryant-Tuckett and Lloyd Silverman studied the effects of the subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies on the academic performance of emotionally disturbed adolescents.
The subjects were divided into experimental and control groups matched for age, IQ, and reading ability. Each group was further divided to receive only words or words with a picture.
Both groups were seen five times a week for six weeks for tachistoscopic exposures of subliminal stimulus.
The experimental group received the stimulus "Mommy and I are one" without a picture and with a picture of a woman pleasantly gazing at an infant cradled in her arms.
The control group was exposed to the neutral stimulus "People are walking" without a picture and with a picture of two bland-looking men.
The experimental group showed greater academic achievement and adaptive functioning. Academic achievement was measured by improvement on a California Achievement Reading Test. They showed improved adaptive functioning in five of six secondary variables - arithmetic achievement, self-concept, handing in homework assignments, independent classroom functioning, and self-imposed limits on television viewing.
It was suggested that activation of unconscious symbiotic fantasies can increase the effectiveness of counseling and teaching.

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Budzynski, T. (1977). Tuning in on the twilight zone. Psychology Today. 11 (3), pp 38-44.

Thomas Budzynski discusses the use of subliminal messages in his clinical practice.
Part of his work involves conducting stress reduction seminars using subliminal messages as well as conventional techniques.
Budzinski has observed that subliminal messages "speed up the recovery process."
By using positive subliminal affirmations, his clients gain self-esteem and assertiveness.
***
Burkham, R. (1982). The effect of subliminal presentation of two gratifying fantasies on female depressives. St. Louis University Dissertation Abstracts International 42, (10-B), 4183. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Robert Burkham replicated Nissenfield's study (1979) and extended it. Nissenfield had reported that procedures intended to elicit unconscious gratifying symbiotic fantasies reduced depressive symptoms among depressed female psychiatric patients.
This study examined the impact of presumed gratifying rapprochement fantasies in reducing depressive symptoms.
Subjects were subliminally presented with a neutral control stimulus, a symbiotic stimulus and a rapprochement stimulus.
The effect of presenting these three stimuli was measured by change scores on seven dependent variables which measured self-reported and experimenter-rated cognitions and effects, self-esteem, psychomotor retardation, as facets of depression, and Silverman's measure of pathological non-verbal behavior.
The subjects manifested no differential response to the stimuli whatsoever. The failure to replicate Nissenfield's results was attributed largely to Nissenfield's unjustifiable data analysis strategy. The possibility of an experimenter effect which either enables or hinders subliminal psychodynamic activation was also considered.

***

Byrne, D. (1959). The effect of subliminal food stimulus on verbal responses, Journal of Applied Psychology, 43 (4), pp 249-252.

In this article Byrne discusses earlier studies on the effects of subliminal stimuli.
It is shown that there is a "greater than chance accuracy in the discrimination of visual, auditory and olfactory stimuli".
The discrimination occurs regardless of whether the stimuli are "rendered subliminal by distance...low intensity of the stimuli...low intensity of surrounding illumination...or lack of attention".

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Byrne,. W. (1979), Let's try harder - and smarter - to solve the problems posed by low achievers Training, 16 (9), p. 122. ISSN: 0095-5892.

William L. Byrne discusses the effects low achievers have on corporations and employees.
Amongst the possible solutions posed for dealing with poor management, is the use of subliminal messages geared to reinforcing good management concepts.

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Caracciolo, D., Shirsat, N., Wong, G.G., Lange, B., Clark, S. & Rovera, G. (1987). Recombinant human macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M_CSF) requires subliminal concentrations of granulocytes/macrophage (GM)-CSF for optimal stimulation of human macrophage colony formation in vitro. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 166 (6), pp 1851 1860.

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Carlsson, I. (1986). "A visual half-field study of anxiety and defense." Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund U. 26(9): 15 p.

Compared visual half-fields examining defenses as mesured by meta-contrast technique. Results showed that both visual field groups reacted with the same measure of anxiety.

Carr, T. & Bacharach, V. (1976). Perceptual tuning and conscious attention. Cognition, 4 (3), pp 281-302.

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Carroll, R.T. (1980). Neurophysiological and psychological mediators of response to subliminal perception: The influence of hemisphericity and defensive style on susceptibility to subliminally presented conflict-laden stimuli. St. John's University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (1-B), pp 342-343.

Richard Carroll examined the individual response, or sensitivity, to subliminal stimulation.
Previous studies have indicated that the individual differences could be explained, at least in part, by differences in either hemisphericity or defensive style.
Four groups of subjects were selected on the basis of extremity in hemisphericity and defensive styles. Each subject was exposed, tachistoscopically to oedipal conflict arousing and conflict alleviating messages, a control message and three neutral messages which served as a "buffer" or baseline stimuli.
The subjects's dart-throwing accuracy was used as a measure of response, or sensitivity, to the conflict-related and control stimuli.
The results revealed an interaction between hemisphericity and defensive style. This indicates that the group with right hemisphericity with externalizing defensive style and group with left hemisphericity with internalizing defensive styles displayed subliminal sensitivity.
The groups with right hemisphericity with internalizing defensive styles and the left hemisphericity with externalizing defensive styles did not display subliminal sensitivity.
The results also indicate that, overall, the conflict arousing message led to significantly lower dart-throwing scores than did
the conflict-alleviating message.

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Carstens, C.B. (1983). Retrospective discounting and augmenting in an overjustification procedure. University of North Carolina, Greensboro. Dissertation Abstract International, 44 (3-B). ISSN: 0419-4209.

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Carter, R. (1986, January/February). Whispering soft nothings to the shop thief: How "reinforcement messaging" works. Retail and Distribution Management, 14 (1), pp 36, 39. ISSN: 0307-2363.

Roy Carter explains how the use of subliminal messages can stop theft.
A new method for curbing retail theft is being tested. This technique, called reinforcement messaging (RM), involves the use of a computer-controlled public address facility to broadcasts messages such as "Be honest - Don't steal" over the store's loudspeaker system at the threshold of conscious hearing. The customers are therefore being influenced without being aware of it.
Due to the likelihood of this project prompting debate, the promoters have taken measures to dispel talk of mind control. It is being emphasized that only approved messages would be used, broadcasting would be at an audible level, and posters would be posted carrying the same message.
Studies in the United States indicate that the system works.
Subliminal Assistance, Ltd., the company that markets RM, claims the method can reduce shop theft by 30 percent.

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Cassel, R. N., D. Hoey, et al. (1990). "Guided imagery with subliminal stimulus in a mind-body health program for chemical dependency rehabilitation (New Beginnings basic program). Special Issue: Special recognition to Dr. Russell N. Cassel." Psychology - a Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior 27(4)-28(1): 3-9.

Reviews the literature and data from psychoneuroimmunology and argue that guided imagery and subliminal stimulus offer an effective stress management intervention particularly for the rehabilitation of chemical dependents.

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Castricone, L.E. (1987). Effects of subliminal symbiotic activation on empathy as measured by conceptual level of object representation, cognitive decentering and drive content. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (4-B), 1141.

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Chakalis, E. and G. Lowe (1992). "Positive effects of subliminal stimulation of memory." Perceptual & Motor Skills 74(3, Pt 1): 956-958.

Examined the effect of subliminally embedded positive affirmations on short-term recall. Results showed that only the group receiving the subliminal affirmations improved.

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Chaloult, L., Borgeat, F. & Chabot, R. (1980). Subliminal perception. 1. Its nature and the controversy engendered. Union Medical Canada, 109 (12), pp 1694-1700. ISSN: 0041-6959. Language: FRENCH.

This article examines subliminal perception with regards to sensory thresholds, perception, subliminal stimulation, photic stimulation and also the public opinion surrounding this issue.
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Charman, D.K. (1979), An examination of the relationship between subliminal perception, visual information processing, levels of processing and hemispheric asymmetries. Perceptual and Motor Skills 49 (2), pp 451-455. ISSN: 0031-5125.

David Charman studied the relationship between subliminal perception, visual information processing, levels of processing and hemispheric asymmetries.
A subliminal letter was exposed to the left right brain hemispheres for either 15 or 30 msec.
Subjective guesses were more accurate for visuospatial positional recognition made to presentation in the right hemisphere whereas verbal recognition was more accurate to presentation in the left hemisphere.
The 30 msec. exposure increased the accuracy of the guesses.
The findings suggest that subliminal information is processed differentially by the hemispheres with respect to positional or verbal content.
The left hemisphere processes subliminal verbal information better than the right; the right hemisphere processes subliminal visuospatial-positional information better than the left.
These findings were discussed in terms of differential triggering mechanisms for levels of hemispheric processing.
Charman's findings reinforce evidence about the nature of hemispheric information processing (Davis & Schmit, 1973; Dimond, 1972 and Searleman, 1977)., as well as adding to this evidence on the grounds that the hemispheres appear to be differentially adapted/sensitive for specialized tasks, i.e. the subliminal information triggered their respective asymmetries beyond that of subjective awareness.
Charman's findings also reinforce Dixon's (1971) argument that subliminal perception operates as a function of exposure and intensity of the present information.

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Cheesman, J.E. (1987). Distinguishing conscious from unconscious perceptual processes. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (10-B), 4335.

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Cheesman, J. & Merikle, P.M. (1984). Priming with and without awareness, University of Waterloo, Canada. Perception and Psychophysics, 36 (4), pp 387-395. ISSN: 0031-5117.

Jim Cheesman and Philip Merikle conducted two experiments to examine whether meaning could be perceived without awareness in a color-naming task.
The color was immediately preceded by the presentation of a congruent color word, incongruent color word, or control letter string.
No evidence for perception without awareness was found when the threshold for detecting color-word primes was measured reliably by a forced-choice procedure, and no priming occurred when the words were presented at the detection threshold.
However, systematic increases in the level of detection for the primes led to correlated increases in the magnitude of priming.
The results provided no support for claims that priming is a more sensitive indicator of perceptual processing than detection based upon verbal report.

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Cherry, D. L. R. (1993). The effects of mood induction on nonconscious perception,

Oklahoma State U, US.

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Cherry, E.F. (1977). On success avoidance in women: a comparative study of psychoanalytic theories. Adelphi University.

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Chew, R. (1977, March 21). Three second spots - Too slow for 1992. Advertising Age, 48 (12), pp 1 & 87. ISSN: 0001-8899.

Robert Chew predicted that by 1992, television commercials would be short, fast bursts of symbols and flashes verging on subliminal communication.

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Chimera, J.E. (1987). An exploration of the effect of auditory subliminal stimuli on schizophrenic pathology. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (10-B), p. 4335.

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Chinen, A.B., Spielvogel, A.M. & Farrell, D. (1985). The experience of intuition. University of California, San Francisco. Psychological Perspectives, 16 (2), pp 186-197. ISSN: 0033-2925.

Allan Chinen, Anna Spielvogel & Dennis Farrell interviewed a group of senior training analysts from Freud and Jung Institutes and senior-level business executives in major corporations about the experience of intuition.
The findings suggest that intuition is a large family of experiences where subtle similarities alone revealed the blood tie.
Intuitions occurred in a distinctive media (verbal thoughts, mental images, physical sensations).
Intuitive experiences were related to subliminal cognition, merging experiences, and synchronistic events.
Women reported more intuitions than did men and this study outlines the resistances.
Intuition appeared to become deeper with age.
The data suggests that the process of intuition involves attunement, articulation and interpretation.
The process of intuition parallels the creative process and depends on the process of symbolization.

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Citrin, M.D. (1980, May). The effects of subliminal oedipal stimulation on competitive performance in college males and females. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (11-B), pp 5399-5400.

Molly Citrin examined the effects of subliminal visual oedipal stimulation on the competitive performance of male versus female college students.

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Claire, J.B. (1981). A holographic model of psychosomatic pattern: Freud's specimen dream re interpreted. Institute of Epidemiology and Behavioral Medicine, San Francisco, CA. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 36 (2), pp 132-142. ISSN: 0033-3190.

Jill Claire discusses the specimen dream that Freud used to elaborate his theories and that contained a representation of his cancer, which manifested 28 years later.
The dream suggests an image of how a disease may become symbolically linked to a psychological complex through subliminal physiological changes occurring as a result of behaviors attributed to the complex.
The dream appears to operate like a holograph, exhibiting the seeds of past trauma while simultaneously predicting the future.

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Clark, M.M. (1987) Effects of social support and subliminal stimulation on anxiety reduction. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (1-B), p. 258.

Findings suggest a lack of robustness of the effects of both social support and subliminal (psychodynamic activation) stimulation.

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Cohen, R.O. (1977). The effects of four subliminally-introduced merging stimuli on the psychopathology of schizophrenic women. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38 (5-B), pp 2356-2357.

Roni Cohen examined the effects of four subliminally introduced merging stimuli on the psychopathology of schizophrenic women.
Two groups were examined in three sessions.
Group one received the experimental stimuli "Mommy and I are one" and "My guy and I are one".
Group two received "Daddy and I are one" and "Girlfriend and I are one".
Half of each group received the messages with verbal plus picture presentation, and half with a verbal-only presentation.
Each session ended with the Adjective Rating Scale, and the last session included collection of demographic data and administration of the Embedded Figures Test.
The results lend support to the hypotheses that, under certain conditions,

1) merging stimuli reduce pathology in female schizophrenics,

2) merging with significant objects, other than the mother, reduces pathology in female schizophrenics under certain conditions, and

3) the sex of the merging stimulus may be male or female for pathology reduction.

The results do not support the hypothesis under all conditions, nor do they support that merging stimulus of the female parent reduces pathology in female subjects. Also, there was no significant difference in pathology reducing effectiveness between stimuli of male and female objects in general.

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Condon, T.J. & Allen, G.J. (1980). Rise of psychoanalytic merging fantasies in systematic desensitization: A rigorous methodological examination. Guidance Center for Family & Youth, Danbury, CT. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89 (3), pp 437-443. ISSN: 0021-843X.
In this study, Thomas Condon and George Allen present a methodologically rigorous replication and extension of the investigation by Silverman, L.H. et al, which shows that the success of systematic desensitization resides partially in its activation of unconscious merging fantasies.
The results obtained, however, pose serious questions as to the internal, external and statistical conclusion validity of Silverman's studies.
Bug-phobic women participated in 4 therapy sessions.
The desensitization technique employed was different to the norm in that subliminal verbal stimuli were substituted for muscle relaxation.
The three stimuli used should have;
(a) decreased fear and behavioral avoidance,
(b) increased anxiety, or
(c) had no effect on fear of insects.
Subjects in all conditions showed significant improvement on behavioral approach, self reported distress, and behaviorally rated anxiety.
No differential treatment outcomes were found.
Analyses ruled out such alternative explanations as therapist specificity or instrumentation deficiencies.

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Conner, L.A. (1984). Subliminal messages - Part 1 Keeping watch, Series 2, Issue 5. Glen Mills. PA

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Conner, L.A. (1984) Subliminal messages - Part 2, Keeping watch. Series 2, Issue 6. Glen Mills, PA.

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Conner, L. (1986 in W.J. Donovan, Enter a quiet voice against shoplifting).

Lawrence Conner, Director of Shoplifters Anonymous, states that, due to the increasing problem of shoplifting, retailers feel that psychological deterrence is the most economical way to go.

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Conner, L.A. Jr. & Conner, L.A. III. (1985). The Midwest Research report on subliminal messages in retail stores, Glen Mills, Pennsylvania: Shoplifters Anonymous.

Larry Conner states that the use of subliminal messages as a deterrent to shoplifters has a greater impact on occasional and habitual shoplifters.

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Conte, M. & Gennaro, A. (1983). Unconscious perceptions, subliminal perceptions and subliminal psychodynamic activation: paths and methodologies. Giornale Storico di Psicologia Dinamica, 7 (13), pp 134-158.

An overview and discussion of subliminal information processing including the effects of subliminal stimulation on dreams, intuition, creativity and aggression; with comments on semantic symbolism and restricting effects of conscious awareness.

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Cook, H. (1985). Effects of subliminal symbiotic gratification and the magic of believing on achievement. Columbia University Teachers College. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 2 (4), pp 365 371. ISSN: 0736-9735.

Harold Cook examined the effect of a subliminally presented symbiotic gratification and a magic of believing message on academic achievement.
The subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental message conditions or a control message condition and received on the average 12 sessions, 10 exposures per session, of 4 msec visual subliminal presentation of 1 of the 3 messages.
The experimental group's messages were either "Mommy and I are one," or "I understand statistics (or measurement)."
The control group's message was "People are walking."
Each session occurred immediately prior to a lecture in either statistics or a measurement class. Each of the courses was taught in a traditional manner by the regular faculty, who were naive regarding the experimental conditions.
The final examinations for each course revealed statistically significant differences in favor of the symbiotic gratification experimental condition over the control condition.
No differences were obtained between the symbiotic and magic of believing conditions.

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Cooper, C. & Kline, P. (1986). An evaluation of the Defence Mechanism Test. University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland. British Journal of Psychology, 77 (1), pp 19-32. ISSN: 0007-1269.

Two experiments were carried out to evaluate the Defence Mechanism Test (DMT).
Experiment 1 used neutral and threatening secondary figures.
The results showed that subliminal threat is a necessary element of the DMT.
In Experiment II, subjects completed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), Group Embedded Figures Test, and DMT.
Although the correlations between the DMT scales and established personality variables were generally small, they were as hypothesized from Freudian theory.
The lack of correspondence, however, between the Repression scale of the DMT and a measure of perceptual defense questions the validity of this scale of the test.
DMT scores were little affected by individual differences in scanning speed when the influence of anxiety was controlled

***

Cooper, L.M. & Hoskovec, J. (1972). Hypnotic suggestion for learning during stage 1 REM sleep. Brigham Young University. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 15 (2), pp 102-111.

This study shows that learning during sleep is possible, but the procedures used in this experiment were not appropriate for practical application.

***

Coren, S., Porac, C. & Ward, L.M. (1978). Sensation and Perception. Academic Press: New York.

The question addressed by Coran, Porac and Ward is, "do audio messages have to be above audio threshold in order to make a difference in one's thinking?"
The argument put forward is that, in the signal detection theory, a subject will alter his response to different levels of possible stimuli.
It is known that when the subject believes that a signal rarely occurs, then they will respond to the faintest sensation.
However, if it is known that the signal occurs rarely, the subject would be tempted to wait to respond until the sensation is stronger.
Using this argument, it should therefore be possible to alter response patterns by altering subjects' expectations.

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Corrigan, R.E. & Becker, H.C. (1956). Research Report. Rome Air Development Command, Griffiss Air Force Base, Rome, NY.

Corrigan and Hal Becker provide evidence that

a) new and useful information can be subliminally communicated to the unconscious, and

b) this information can be used, at a later time, at the conscious level in a problem solving situation.

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Corrigan, R.E. & Becker, H.C. (Oct. 30, 1962). Apparatus for producing visual stimulation. United States Patent Office, 3,060,795.

Robert E. Corrigan and Hal C. Becker filed a patent for apparatus which produces visual stimulation at levels of awareness below that ability of an observer to report the stimulus verbally.
The apparatus is to be used to impart useful information to the observer by subconscious stimulation, resulting subsequently in conscious purposive behavior of said observer without his awareness of the basis for such behavior.

***

Costley, D.L. & Moore, F.A. (1986). The subliminal impact and hidden agendas of training. New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. Personnel Journal, 65 (3), pp 101-102 and p. 105.

Dan Costley and Fay Moore suggest that trainers should be upfront about the use of subliminals for training purposes.
The concern is the possible effects of the subliminals after the training is over.

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Crawford, B.H. & Palmer, D.A. (1985). The scotopic visibility curve and cone intrusion. Institute of Ophthalmology, Department of Visual Science, London, England. Vision Research, 25 (6), pp 863-866. ISSN: 0042-6989.

In this study the scotopic visibility curves of 2 observers was measured by determining their absolute thresholds for monochromatic lights.
It is postulated, however, that the threshold results in the long-wave part of the spectrum could be considerably modified by subliminal red and green lights. This is consistent with B. Drum's (1982) observations of subadditivity at threshold.

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Crawford, M.A. (1985). Subliminal messaging - A 50s technology enjoys a rebirth. Security Management, 29 (8), pp 54-56. ISSN: 0145-9406.

Mary Crawford reported on the use of subliminal communication as a method to reduce retail theft.
There is controversy over whether subliminal communication is effective for the purpose of reducing shop theft, and there are also complaints about it intruding on personal privacy.
She indicated that, at present, no laws govern the use of subliminal communication although there have been proposals for regulating it.
Despite the controversy over its effectiveness, the use of subliminal communication is growing.
One company claims 20 to 40 percent reduction in losses.

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Cummins, R.A. (1985). Subliminal perception. A discussion with special relevance to the uses of subliminal audio tapes. Bulletin of the Australian Psychological Society, pp 28-35.

Robert Cummins discusses research on subliminal communication, with particular emphasis on the faults in methodology.
An argument put forward is that of Timothy E. Moore, where it is believed that some of the results obtained from scientific research were actually due to effects of weak (but not subliminal) stimulation.
The article erroneously states that the practice of using subliminal messages was outlawed in the United States.
Cummins produces contradictions in his arguments against subliminal communication with his belief that such "mind control" techniques should be banned, whilst still maintaining that they do not work.
Cummins believes that any results obtained from using subliminal audio tapes are purely placebo effects.

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Cuperfain, R. & Clarke, T.K. (1985). A new perspective of subliminal perception. Journal of Advertising, 14 (1), pp 36-41. ISSN: 0091-3367.

The problem with previous research regarding the effects subliminal stimulation has on buying behavior, may be due to the researchers focusing on the wrong areas of subliminal perception or making unreasonable demands on subliminal perception.
Research has suggested that right brain processing may be more efficient than left brain processing. Also, subliminal stimulation may affect most people through right brain information processing.
This means that multiple exposures of graphic representations of products presented to the left field of vision will generate effective subliminal perception.
Ronnie Cuperfain and Keith Clarke tested this model of subliminal stimulation in a laboratory study.
Subjects viewed a film concerning woolen-clothing soaps that did or did not have a subliminal messages (5 tachistoscopic presentation to the left visual field of a picture of 1 of 2 products).
Each subliminal presentation lasted for 1/60th of 1 second.
The subjects then completed a questionnaire that asked them to rank-order the 5 soaps.
The results indicate that the subliminal messages did have an impact on stated preference for the highly advertised, widely available product, but not for the relatively unknown product.
The test also suggests that regular programming presents a greater potential for misuse of subliminal stimulation than commercial breaks.

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Czyzewska-Pacewicz, M. (1984). The priming phenomenon in semantic memory evoked by sub threshold stimuli. Polish Academy of Sciences, Psychology Institute, Warsaw. Przeglad Psychologiczny, 27 (3), pp 617-629. ISSN: 1148-5675, Language: POLISH.

In this study Maria Czyzewska-Pacewicz examined semantic priming produced by unconsciously transformed stimuli.
It is assumed that the semantic analysis of information received beyond the control of awareness probably plays a considerable role in more functionally complex cognitive processes.
Stimuli were presented below the threshold of cognition and remained in various semantic relations with materials consciously seen and transformed by the subjects.
A clear effect of priming was revealed by the shortening of the impulse transformation when it was preceded by a semantically linked stimulus exposed beyond the control of awareness.

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D'Adamo, M. V. (1989). Use of subliminal symbiotic stimulation and humorous depiction of oral aggression as adjuncts in the inpatient treatment of anorexia and bulimia, Long Island U Brooklyn Ctr, US.

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D'Agostino, P. R. (1991). "Spontaneous trait inferences: Effects of recognition instructions and subliminal priming on recognition performance." Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 17(1): 70-77.

This study showed that the subliminal presentation of primes decreased the recognition accuracy for implicit traits but only under a certain condition.

***

Dagenbach, D., T. H. Carr, et al. (1989). "Task-induced strategies and near-threshold priming: Conscious influences on unconscious perception." Journal of Memory & Language 28(4): 412 443.

Finding suggest different strategies for encoding and retrieving information semantically primed in lexical decision processes presented under conditions of near threshold semantic priming.

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Dauber, R.B. (1984). Subliminal psychodynamic activation in depression: On the role of autonomy issues in depressed college women. Dutton Counseling Center, Morristown, NJ. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93 (1), pp 9-18. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Richard Dauber used the subliminal psychodynamic activation method in 2 experiments to study the effects of messages related to autonomy on 36 depressed (Beck Depression Inventory Score >=10) female undergraduates.
Subjects were administered the Depressive Adjective Check List (DACL) and the TAT to assess depression during the experiments.
In Experiment I, exposure to the stimulus "Leaving mom is wrong" increased depression but the stimulus "Mommy and I are one" did not reduce depression.
In Experiment II, the stimulus "Leaving mom is wrong" intensified depression, particularly for those subjects who scored high on the DACL for introjective depression, a depression that is understood as guilt-related.
The findings suggest that psychodynamic effects can be demonstrated with depressive patients if care is taken both to select a relevant psychodynamic content and to select depressive subjects for whom there is reason to believe this content is particularly relevant.

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Davis, P. & Silver M.J. (1971). Ellipse discrimination: A psychophysical task useful for studying incidental stimulation. Medfield Foundation, Mass. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 32 (1), pp 95-97. ISSN: 0031-5125.

An ellipse discrimination test, with 4 distinct levels of difficulty, was developed. This test provided a wide range of alternative responses rather than a binary choice.
The subject's task was to judge in which of 6 o'clock orientations the minor axis of the ellipse was oriented.
Although this procedure was evolved as propaedeutic to studying the effects of incidental, "subliminal," unbeknown stimulation on such a discrimination, it should prove useful in other contexts whenever a difficult ellipse discrimination is required.

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Dean, D. & Nash, C.B. (1967). Coincident Plethysmograph results under controlled conditions. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 44 (731), pp 1-14.

This study reports on a subject who gave plethysmographic responses which coincided with stimulations given to an agent in an adjoining room, suggestive of mental telepathy. Other similar experiments are also reported.
An experiment was carried out, the results of which indicate that mental operations coincide with subjects' plethysmograph responses.
Extrasensory stimulation of the subjects physiological response by an agent showed that the results can be due to chance coincidence, to errors due to bias and that this can be inference by subliminal sensory communication.
The evidence obtained by plethysmographs can be used to measure PSI effects if emotionally-laden stimuli are used and if inhibitory emotional reactions are absent.

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DeChenne, J.A. (1976). An experimental study to determine if a task involving psychomotor and problem solving skills can be taught subliminally. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37 (4-A), p. 1947.

The purpose of this study, conducted by James DeChenne, was to determine if a task involving psychomotor and problem solving skills could be taught subliminally at three educational levels.
A video taped motion picture was shown, the content of which was totally unrelated to the task being taught.
Based on the results of the study, the following generalizations were inferred:

1. Under the experimental conditions of this study, students at the educational levels tested, were not able to be taught a task subliminally, which involved psychomotor and problem solving skills.

2. As the subjects were exposed to the subliminal stimuli for a total of one half os a second, this could explain the limited influence of the subliminal stimulation.

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De Fleur, M.L. & Petranoff, R.M. (1959). Television test of subliminal persuasion, Indiana University, Bloomington. Public Opinion Quarterly, 23 (2), p. 168.

Melvin De Fleur and Robert Petranoff examined the effect of subliminal television broadcasts.

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De Houwer, J., F. Baeyens, et al. (1994). "Verbal evaluative conditioning with undetected US presentations." Behaviour Research & Therapy 32(6): 629-633.

Positive, negative and neutral words were presented in this study to subjects unaware of backward masked subliminal pairing. Results showed a positive correlation between paired words where the back masked stimuli was present.

***

De Martino, C.R. (1969). The effects of subliminal stimulation as a function of stimulus content, drive arousal and priming and defense against drive. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts, 29 (12-B), p. 4843.

Claude Robert de Martino undertook this study in order to demonstrate:

1) that the subliminality of a stimulus is more crucial than it's content in determining the subliminal effect;

2) that subliminal effects can be produced without prior manipulation of drive states;

3) that priming enhances the effects of neutral but not of drive related subliminal stimuli;

4) that the effects of the latter are inhibited by drive arousal;

5) that the effects of drive-related subliminal stimuli are constricted by defensive and enhanced by non-defensiveness.

The effects of a neutral subliminal stimulus, the word "tell", and an aggressive subliminal stimulus, the word "kill", were investigated under neutral drive and priming. The effects of the aggressive stimulus were also investigated under drive arousal.
A comparison of the mean pre and post scores on the Adjective Check Mood List showed that insulting the subjects made them feel more hostile and anxious. Priming, however, had no effect on the subjects' feelings.
Both the discrimination and detection procedures indicated that the "kill" and "tell" stimuli were subliminal.
Recognition was a more sensitive response measure than recall.
With recognition as the response measure, a subliminal effect was found for both the aggressive and the neutral subliminal stimuli under neutral drive conditions. The magnitude of this effect was significantly greater under priming conditions.
Priming enhanced the effects of neutral subliminal stimuli, but inhibited the effects of the aggressive subliminal stimulus.
The effects of the aggressive subliminal stimulus were carried by subjects who described themselves as aggressive on the Buss-Durkee Inventory, whereas the subjects who described themselves as not aggressive showed a negative or no effect. This trend was reversed with a neutral subliminal stimulus.

***

Devalle, D. A. (1989). Discrimination without awareness, U Wales, Wales.

***

Deviatkina, T.A., Tarasenko, L.M., Bbyreva, L.E., Sergienko, N.G. & Voskresenskii, O.N. (1985). Lipid peroxidation in tissues during subliminal electrostimulation of limbic system structures in the brain. Biull. Eksp. Biol. Med., 100 (10), pp 412-414.

***

Dillingham, S. (1987, September 14). Inaudible messages making a noise. Insight, pp 44-45.

Susan Dillingham reports on the success of subliminal self-help tape sales.

***

Diaz Lopez, A. and E. Taylor, "Illness as a Behavioral Strategy." Proceeding from the International Psychiatric Congress, Mexico City, Sept. 1998.

Research findings from three government funded studies using subliminal audio cassettes developed by Eldon Taylor using the so-called "Taylor Method" were reported. Three studies covering the areas of chronic dental anxiety, smoking cessation and weight loss resulted in significant improvements for subjects in all categories. New findings in PNI research are discussed. A comprehensive theoretical is offered.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1956). Symbolic associations following subliminal stimulation. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 37.
***

Dixon, N.F. (1958a). Apparent changes in the visual threshold as a function of subliminal stimulation. A preliminary report. Quarterly Journal Of Experimental Psychology, 10, pp 211 219.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1958b). The effect of subliminal stimulation upon autonomic and verbal behavior. Journal Of Abnormal Social Psychology, 57.

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Dixon, N.F.(1964). Communication without awareness: Implications of subliminal perception.

Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 8.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1968). "Perception without awareness": A reply to K.W. Banreti-Fuchs. University of Adelaide, Australia. Acta Psychology, Amsterdam, 28 (2), pp 171-180. ISSN: 0001-6918.

A study by Banreti-Fuchs to determine the verbal responses on subliminal stimuli, support the view that it is very easy to prevent weak stimuli having an effect upon behavior. As such they do not constitute a fair test of the original hypothesis.
Some of the factors involved in the controversy surrounding subliminals, are discussed.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1971). Subliminal Perception: The Nature of a Controversy, London: McGraw-Hill.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1979). Subliminal perception and parapsychology: Points of contact. University of London, University College, England. Parapsychology Review, 10 (3), pp 1-6. ISSN: 0031-1804.

Norman Dixon argues that parapsychological phenomena and subliminal perception may depend on the same underlying process.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1981a). The conscious/unconscious interface: Contributions to an understanding. University of London, University College, England. Lund University: Psychological Research Bulletin, 21 (5). ISSN: 0348-3673.

Norman Dixon states that there is hardly a single finding from subliminal perception, microgenesis and sleep and dream research, that does not implicate a 2-way interaction between sensory inflow, emotional appraisal, and the unconscious memory storage systems of the human brain.
A flow model is presented to explain how physiological events in the brain give rise to representations in the mind.

***
Dixon, N.F. (1981b). Preconscious Processing, New York: Wiley.

Norman Dixon discusses preconscious processing.
He states that the unconscious mind integrates the meaning of new words with related data in memory without conscious awareness or effort.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1981c). Psychosomatic disorder: a special case of subliminal perception? In Psychosomatic Approaches to Medicine, 1, Behavioral Science Foundations, Eds. M.J. Christy & P.G. Mellett, London: Wiley.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1983). The conscious-unconscious interface: Contributions to an understanding. University of London, University College, England. Archiv fur Psychologie, 135 (1), pp 55-66. ISSN: 0066-6475.

Norman Dixon states that there is hardly a single finding from subliminal perception, microgenesis, and sleep and dream research that does not implicate a 2-way interactions between sensory inflow, emotional appraisal, and the unconscious memory storage systems of the human brain.
A flow model is developed to explain how physiological events in the brain give rise to representations in the mind.
The model depicts conditions for achieving conscious representations of sensory inflow, which include physical, physiological and mental factors.
Regardless of the mechanism through which the transition from physiological to phenomenal representation is achieved, the transition is potentially sensitive to these three physical, physiological and mental factors.
The model also encompasses;

1) consciousness and energy,

2) temporal parameters of consciousness,

3) the ubiquity of subliminal effects across receptors,

4) sensory dimensions, and

5) modalities.

***

Dixon, N.F., Henley, S.H. & Weir, C.G. (1984). Extraction of information from continuously masked successive stimuli: An exploratory study. University of London, University College, England. Current Psychological Research & Review, 3 (1), pp 38-44. ISSN: 0737-8262.

Norman Dixon, Sue Henley and C.G. Weir reported on five studies in which the amount and type of information recoverable from rapidly changing and continuously masked letter strings, was examined.
The effect of responding to continuously masked stimuli of subjects' instructional sets using a computer-controlled paradigm were also examined.
It was found that it was possible for most subjects, with effort, to concentrate responses in some time periods after the target.
It was suggested that, although not consciously recognizable, masked words do not behave like totally subliminal verbal stimuli.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1985a). Apparent changes in the visual threshold as a function of subliminal stimulation. A preliminary report. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, pp 211 219.

***

Dixon, N.F. (1985b). The effect of subliminal stimulation upon autonomic and verbal behavior. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 57.

***

Dodge, R. (1907). An improved exposure apparatus. Psychology Bulletin, 4, pp 10-13.

Dodge describes his design for a tachistoscope for use in psychology laboratories.

***

Doerries, L.E. & Harcum, E.R. (1967). Long-term traces of tachistoscopic word perception. Perceptual Motor Skills (United States), 25 (1), pp 25-30. ISSN: 0031-5125.

Doerries and Harcum examined the effects of visual subliminal word presentation on serial learning and verbal learning, and the long term memory traces.

***

Donovan, P. (1985). Selling right and left. Sales and Marketing Management, 134 (8), pp 63 65. ISSN: 0163-7517.

Priscilla Donovan examines the concept of brain hemisphere dominance and determines how it can be applied to selling.
An understanding of the difference between customers with a left-brain and those with a right-brain thinking style can help a sales person do a better, more profitable job.
According to human brain research, left-dominant people are good at mathematics, talking on their feet and organizing, while right-brained people can "read' other people intuitively, like variety and can estimate distance and space correctly.
These differences can be used by the salesperson to predict how a client will respond to certain products and sales strategies.
When dealing with left-brained customers, salespeople should be prompt, concise and exact, with right-brained customers, they should adopt a friendlier, more circumspect approach.
Because the left is favored in American culture, the right exerts a powerful subliminal force on everyone.

***

Donovan, W.J. (1986, February 18). Enter a quiet voice against shoplifting. Providence Journal Rhode Island.

William Donovan describes how more and more retailers are turning to subliminal messages to combat shoplifting.
Although there were concerns about mind control, the public is now beginning to understand that the point is to reinforce a person's natural actions.
The point stressed is that subliminal messages cannot be used to get people to buy products.
The subliminal messages are used to add weight to people's consciences regarding right and wrong.
Subliminal messaging, like hypnosis, only works when it enhances the individuals feelings.
It is estimated that more than 300 of the million or so retailers use subaudio messages. However due to the concern about the possibility of negative public opinion, they refuse to disclose such use.

***

Duncan, J. (1985). Two techniques for investigating perception without awareness. MRC Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge, England, Perception and Psychophysics, 38 (3), pp 296-298. ISSN: 0031-5117.

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Dunham, W.R. (1894). The Science of Vital Force, Boston: Damrell and Upham.

Dunham discusses supraliminal and subliminal consciousness.
Supraliminal consciousness is seen as ordinary intelligence, which is above the horizon and within the limit of recognition.
Subliminal consciousness is seen as an obscure function of the mind and intellectual ability.

***

Dutto, F.N. & Galli, N. (1982). The effects of noxious subliminal suggestions upon smoking attitudes and behavior. ERIC, ED 217359 (EDRS).

Franklin Dutto and Nicholas Galli studied the effects of noxious subliminal suggestions upon smoking attitudes and behavior.
Subliminal stimuli used were slides of a cigarette package with a skull and crossbones and the word "POISON".
Adult smokers, were shown anti-smoking films.
The experimental groups' film contained six splices of the subliminal stimuli.
The experimental group exhibited no change in smoking behavior or attitudes.
This study supports the ideas that affirmations need to be positive to be effective.

***

Duval, M., P. Cogliolo, et al. (1990). Memory for intraoperative events and its psychological consequences. Memory and awareness in anaesthesia. W. F. Benno Bonke, Keith Millar,, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Netherlands: 244-249.

(from the chapter) aim of our study was to identify any occurrence of awareness or recall (during general anaesthesia), and to find out whether either or both of them would be associated with conscious or unconscious psychological consequences # 60 female patients ...(took) part in a study of cognitive functioning during and after surgery # during surgery, subjects would receive certain sounds, through headphones, at a normal listening volume.

***

Eagle, M. (1959). The effects of subliminal stimuli of aggressive content upon conscious cognition. Journal of Personality, 27, pp 578-600.

***

Eagle, M. (1962). Personality correlates of sensitivity to subliminal stimulation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 134 (1).
***

Efran, J.S. & Marcia, J.E. (1967). Treatment of fears by expectancy manipulation: An exploratory investigation. Proceedings of the 75th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, 2, pp 239-240.

Efran and Marcia devised a treatment for snake and spider phobics.
This treatment is similar to systematic desensitization except that it does not use the pairing of relaxation and anxiety hierarchy images.
The treatment consisted of looking into a blank tachistoscope. Occasional shocks were administered and the subjects were told that this was an automatic reactions to the "subliminal" phobic stimuli which were being extinguished.
The test was administered to two groups of subjects under high and low expectancy conditions.
The results indicated that this treatment had it's greatest effect under high-expectancy conditions.

***

Ellis, H.D. (1972). Adaptation-level theory and context effects on sensory judgments: perception for response? Perception, 1 (1), pp 101-109. ISSN: 0301-0066.

Findings of covert recognition are compared with subliminal stimuli.

***

Emas, S. W. (1989). Effects of subliminal psychodynamic activation messages upon state anxiety of males and females, U Missouri, Kansas City, US.

***

Emmelkamp, P.M. & Straatman, H. (1976). A psychoanalytic reinterpretation of the effectiveness of systematic desensitization: Fact or fiction? Behavior Research & Therapy, 14 (3), pp 245-249.

The aim of this study was to replicate and extend the work of L.H. Silverman.
Silverman stated that the effectiveness of systematic desensitization (SD) resides in its activation of unconscious merging fantasies.
In Silverman's experiments, a procedure aimed at stimulating a fantasy of "merging with mother" was substituted for muscle relaxation.
The subjects underwent tachistoscopic subliminal exposure of the symbiotic gratification stimulus "Mommy and I are one" (experimental) or the neutral stimulus "people are walking" (control).
Emmelkamp and Straatman replicated this study with special reference to demand characteristics.
Snake-phobic subjects were used.
It was found that the systematic desensitization with a symbiotic gratification stimulus was not more effective than systematic desensitization with a neutral stimulus.
This may be explained by the fact that the neutral stimulus in the present study "snake and I are one" was more relevant than the neutral stimulus in the Silverman et al study.
In addition, it was found that the subjects with a therapy-set improved significantly more than subjects with a research-set.

***

Emrich, H. & Heineman, L.G. (1966). EEG in subliminal perception of emotionally important words. Psychology Forsch, 29 (4), pp 285-296. ISSN: 0033-3026, Language: GERMAN.

Emrich and Heineman used an EEG as measurement of the effects of the subliminal presentation of emotionally important words.

***

Erdelyi, M.H. (1972). Role of fantasy in the Poetzl (emergence) phenomenon. Douglass College, Rutgers State University. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24 (2), pp 186-190.

Matthew Erdelyi compared the relative effectiveness of doodles and pictorial guesses in recovering initially unreported elements of a brief stimulus.
Subjects were randomly assigned to fantasy, guessing or yoked groups.
The fantasy and guessing subjects saw a brief (500 msec.) composite stimulus which they then attempted to recall.
The fantasy subjects subsequently generated 20 unrepeating pictorial fantasies, while the guessing subjects produced 20 "shrewd guesses" of the unrecalled stimulus elements.
The yoked group never saw the stimulus, instead each subject saw and copied the free recall drawings of a fantasy subject and then generated 20 guesses of the unrecalled elements.
The guessing subjects recovered significantly more stimulus items in their 20 responses than the fantasy subjects, while the yoked subjects responses were significantly less accurate than their fantasy counterparts. Fantasy in the confirmed Poetzl phenomenon was interpreted as functioning much like subcriterion responses emitted in forced-recall guessing.

***
Erdelyi, M.H. (1974). A new look at the new look: Perceptual defense and vigilance. Psychological Review, 81 (1), pp 1-25.

***

Erdelyi, M.H. (1985). Psychoanalysis: Freud's Cognitive Psychology. W.H. Freeman and Company. New York.

In this book, Erdelyi discusses experiments in which subjects recalled the contents of subliminally induced messages through free association and daydreams.

***

Erdley, C. A. and P. R. D'Agostino (1988). "Cognitive and affective components of automatic priming effects." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54(5): 741-747.

The authors of this study suggest that their fails to show a general affective response to priming effects.

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Erikson, C.W. (1958). Unconscious processes. In M.R. Jones (Ed.) Nebraska Symposia on Motivation. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.

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Erikson, C.W. & Johnson, H.J. (1964). Storage and decay characteristics of nonattended auditory stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68 (1), pp 28-36.

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Faenze, V. (1966) Conditions of equivocity of the response in relation to the problem of "subliminal" perception. Archivio Di Psicologia, Neurologia E Psichiatria, 27 (4-5), pp 443 445. ISSN: 0004-0150, Language: ITALIAN.

Under masking noise, subliminal language perception may be influenced by uncontrolled fluctuations.

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Farne, M. (1965) Degree of discernability of the stimulus and perceptive behavior. Archivio Di Psicologia, Neurologia E Psichiatria, 26 (6), pp 566-567. ISSN: 0004-0150, Language: ITALIAN

Farne examined the degree of discernability of subliminal stimuli.

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Farrar, J. E. (1989). The effects of subliminal visual stimuli and supraliminal simple sound on the affective states and involvement in treatment of chronic alcoholics, New York U, US.

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Feldman, J.B. (1979). The utilization of the subliminal psychodynamic activation method in the further examination of conscious and unconscious measures of death anxiety. Dissertation Abstracts International, 39 (11-B), pp 5547-5548.

A method to experimentally induce death anxiety was devised to test the validity of four indirect measures of unconscious death anxiety.
The technique chosen was a variation of the subliminal psychodynamic activation method as devised by Silverman (Silverman, 1976).
Using a series of three pictorial and verbal stimuli, individuals could detect a flash of light, but could neither discern content or discriminate between a death related and neutral series of stimuli at 3 msec. duration of exposure.
Further studies using 3 msec. and 4 msec. duration indicated that the subliminal stimulation was effective in inducing death anxiety.
In this study, subjects received four series of three subliminal stimuli prior to the word recognition, word-association and association-recall tasks.
Subjects also completed a death anxiety questionnaire.
This study supported the findings of this author's previous study in terms of subjects' differential responsivity to death, neutral and sex-related words on a word-recognition, word association and association recall task.

***

Field, G.A. (1974). The unconscious organization. University of Windsor, Canada. Psychoanalytic Review, 61 (3), pp 333-354.

George Field discusses how, within an organization, there is an unconscious, where ideas and feelings unacceptable to the organizational superego or ego are actively repressed below the level of the organizational preconscious.
The organizational unconscious exerts a subliminal influence on organizational policies and actions.

***

Figueroa, M. D. (1989). "Comments on the subliminal psychodynamic activation method." American Psychologist 44(11): 1421-1422.

This article essentially sets forth the authors doubt of the psychodynamic activation method of Silverman's while lending confirmation to the idea that subliminal stimuli is processed differently than direct conscious processing.

***

Firestone, R.W. (1986). The "inner voice" and suicide. Psychotherapy, 23 (3), pp 439-447. ISSN: 0033-3204.

Although there is a lack of clear behavioral indications of potential suicide victims, there is clinical evidence that the majority of these people are tortured by a subliminal voice or thought process.
This subliminal voice is degrading and derisive to the self and normally accompanies feelings of depression and lowered self-esteem.
Under certain conditions, this system of hostile thoughts becomes progressively ascendant until it finally takes precedence over thought processes of rational self-interest.
Firestone suggests that, by using laboratory procedures, these thoughts can be formulated and brought directly into consciousness when they are put in terms of a "voice."
The dynamics and probable sources of the voice are analyzed and the relationship between this destructive thought process and actual suicidal behavior are explored.

***

Fisher, C. (1954). Dreams and perception. Journal of the American Psychoanalysis Association, 2, pp 389-445.

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Fisher, C. (1956). Dreams, images and perception: A study of unconscious-preconscious relationships. Journal Of The American Psychoanalytical Association, 4, pp 5-48.

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Fisher, C. (1960). Subliminal and supraliminal influence on dreams. American Journal Of Psychiatry, 116.

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Fisher, S. (1975). Effects of messages reported to be out of awareness upon the body boundary. State University New York, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 161 (2), pp 90-99.

In a series of eight studies, it was found that out-of-awareness taped messages produced boundary decrement, as measured by the Barrier score (derived from the Holtzman Inkblot Test) in men.
The messages included hostility, depression, body, vulnerability and reassurance themes.
All themes, when properly primed, resulted in boundary decline in men.
Nonprimed and control conditions did not effect the boundary.
In contrast, no significant boundary changes were produced by the primed out-of-awareness themes in women.
It is proposed that men are more disturbed than women by feelings that material has gained entrance to them in a fashion which they cannot control.

***

Fisher, S. (1976). Conditions affecting boundary response to messages out of awareness. State University of New York, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 162 (5), pp 313-322. ISSN: 0022-3018.

Seymour Fisher examined multiple studies which evaluated the role of various following parameters in mediating the effects of auditory subliminal inputs upon the body boundary.
The following questions were asked;

1) What is the effect of the subliminal stimulus upon the boundary if the individual is made aware that he is exposed to a subliminal input?

2) How specific must the priming process preceding a subliminal input be in order to potentiate its boundary effects?

3) How is the subliminal registration process altered by introducing a competing stimulus input?

4) Can the apparent stability of the woman's boundary in relation to subliminal input be decreased by introducing an input theme that might be considered particularly threatening to a woman?

5) What is the effect upon response to subliminal input of greatly increasing the amount of exposure to the input?

6) Can individual differences in response to subliminal input be predicted in terms of two variables;

a) degree of tolerance for unrealistic experiences, and

b) degree of masculinity-femininity?

In a series of six studies, a test-retest design was typically employed that involved measuring the baseline Barrier score with the Holtzman blots and then ascertaining the Barrier change when responding to a second series of Holtzman blots at the same tome that subliminal input was occurring.
Complex results emerged that defined in considerably new detail what facilitates and blocks the boundary-disrupting effects of subliminal messages in men and to a lesser degree in women.
It was found that;

a) an individual's awareness that he is being exposed to subliminal input does not effect the degree of boundary impact of that input,

b) subliminal input can be modified by the context in which it is presented,

c) subliminal effects depend upon the conditions of the subliminal input,

d) the increased duration of subliminal input produced an increase in boundary effect in females,

e) the increased duration of subliminal input produced a decrease in boundary effect in males,

f) priming does not need to be obviously and directly related to the subliminal message in order to potentiate it.

These findings show that subtle perceptual inputs that do not register in awareness may have a boundary impact.

***

Fisher, C. (1988). Further observations on the Poetzl phenomenon: the effects of subliminal visual stimulation on dreams, images and hallucinations. Psychoanalysis & Contemporary Thought, 2 (1), pp 3-56.

Findings suggest that subliminal information is utilized in hallucinations, dream imagery and creative processes such as those particularly discussed regarding P. Picasso.

***

Fisher, C.B., Glewick, D.S. & Blumenthal, R.S. (1986). Subliminal oedipal stimuli and competitive performance: An investigation of between-groups effects and mediating subject variables. Fordham University Bronx. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95 (3), pp 292-294. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Celia Fisher, David Glenwick and Rena Blumenthal assessed the effects of subliminal presentation of oedipal messages on the competitive performance of college males.
An additional investigation employing a between-groups design, in which Subjects received repeated presentations of 1 of 3 messages, was conducted.
The subjects completed the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.
The results indicated significant differences between performance following both oedipally related stimuli and the control stimulus for the replication groups.
There was no significant stimulus effects observed in the between-groups investigation, and no significant correlations between anxiety and dart-throwing performance were obtained.

***

Fisher, C. & Paul, I.H. (1959). The effects of subliminal visual stimulation on imagery and dreams. A validation study. Journal Of American Psychoanalytical Association, 7.

Fisher and Paul show that subliminal messages actually register within the unconscious without the subject being aware of it.
It was found that the recovery of subliminal stimuli in subsequent imagery is maximized by making the subject adopt a supine position in the dark.

***

Fisher, C. (1988). Subliminal (preconcious) perception: The microgenesis of unconscious fantasy. Fantasy, myth, and reality: Essays in honor of Jacob A. Arlow, M.D. Y. K. Harold P. Blum, Arlene Kramer Richards, Arnold D. Richards,, International Universities Press, Inc, Madison, CT, US: 93-108.

(from the chapter) suggestion that unconscious fantasy pervades mental life, both waking and sleeping /// this work indicates that the dream process begins during the day, as the unconscious wish and the fantasies associated with it transfer their intensity onto the day residue /// it is suggested further that the dream work continues throughout the day, as further day residues are drawn into the dream process /// a combined dream/imagery experiment.

Fiss, H. (1966a). Physiognomic effects of subliminal stimulation. Perceptual and Motor skills, 22, pp 265-366. New York University.
***

Fiss, H. (1966b). The effects of experimentally induced changes in alertness on response to subliminal stimulation. Journal of Personality, 34 (4), pp 577-595. New York University. ISSN: 0022-3506.

Fiss examined the effects of experimentally induced changes in alertness on response to subliminal stimulation.

***

Fiss, H., Goldberg, F. & Klein G.S. (1963). Effects of subliminal stimulation on imagery and discrimination. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 17, pp 31-44.

Fiss, Goldberg and Klein examined the effects of subliminal stimulation on imagery and discrimination.

***

Fiss, H. (1993). The "royal road" to the unconscious revisited: A signal detection model of dream function. The functions of dreaming. SUNY series in dream studies. M. K. Alan Moffitt, Robert Hoffmann,, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, US: 381-418.

(from the chapter) review the empirical foundation underlying this formulation of dream function (that dreams are the "royal road" to a cognitive unconscious of information processing and psychic structure building) / point out how this formulation fits the framework of signal detection theory and sketch the outlines of a unified signal detection model in terms of which the effects of subliminal stimuli administered in the waking state (subliminal activation) are understood to be analogous to the effects of what normally would be considered to be supraliminal stimuli applied during sleep (sleep stimulation) / (consider) the implications of this model for further experimental research, clinical practice, and theory.

***

Florek, W.G. (1985). An investigation of the effects of stimulation symbiotic fantasies in primipara females. St. John's University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (5-B), p. 1720. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Walter Florek investigated the effects of symbiotic subliminal messages on the adaptation, anxiety and attitudes of primipara females towards pregnancy.

***

Florek, R. (1982). The effects of subliminal tachistoscopic presentation of drive-related stimuli on the cognitive functioning of paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenics. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (10-B), pp 4190-4191. ISSN: 04104209.

***
Foodman, A. (1976). Hemispheric asymmetrical brain wave indicators of unconscious mental processes. Meninger Foundation, Topeka, KS. Journal of Operational Psychiatry, 7 (1), pp 3 15.

In this study, Allen Foodman explored the relationship between AER discrimination for subliminally presented stimuli and cerebral hemispheric functional asymmetry.
Three questions were posed to investigate the hypothesis:

1) Would AER laterality differences appear for picture, one of which is readily identified verbally and the other not?

2) Would AER laterality effects appear for subliminal as well as supraliminal presentations?

3) Would correlations be found between associations to the meaningful picture and the dominant side AERs?

The findings largely supported an affirmative answer to all these questions and thus demonstrated cerebral hemispheric asymmetry of unconscious mental processes.
A model was suggested to account for the findings.

***

Foster, R.P. (1982). The effects of subliminal tachistoscopic presentation of drive-related stimuli on the cognitive functioning of paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenics. St. John's University Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (10-B), pp 4190-4191. ISSN: 0419-4209.

***

Foulke, E. & Sticht, I.G. (1969). Review of research on the intelligibility and comprehension of accelerated speech. Psychological Bulletin, 72 (1), 50.

***

Fox, M. (1966). Differential effects of subliminal and supraliminal stimulation. Dissertation Abstracts, 27 (4-B), pp 1289-1290.

Major hypotheses tested were that subliminal stimuli can be effective in the absence of partial conscious cues and that subliminal and supraliminal stimuli produce differential effects.
Subjects viewed Happy and Angry (type A) figures subliminally and supraliminally, and a neutral line drawing of a face (type B) presented supraliminally. The presentations differed in that both the words and the face were visible in the supraliminal condition, whereas only the face was visible in the subliminal condition.
Changes in the subjects' descriptions of the face and the reaction times served as indices for the word's effects.
Responses were more pleasant when the face was paired (subliminally) with Happy rather than Angry. This indicates that the subjects' conscious processes were influenced by words of which they were unaware.
Sensitivity to subliminal stimuli was enhanced when the subjects suspended efforts at objectivity and passively gave themselves over to feelings and fantasies about the face they were describing.
Reaction time was no different between the subliminal and supraliminal conditions, nor was there any difference between the words within the conditions.
Distinctive effects were produced with subliminal and supraliminal stimulation. When the subjects made the visible words relevant to the task of describing the face, the words appeared more frequently in the descriptions from the supraliminal condition than with the subliminal condition. When the supraliminal figures were made irrelevant to the task, there was no significant difference in the number of reports of the words in the subliminal and supraliminal conditions. More direct expressions of the affect appeared in the subliminal than in the supraliminal condition.

***

Frauman, D.C. (1985). Effect of subliminal symbiotic activation on hypnotic rapport and susceptibility. Ohio University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, (9-B), p. 3068. ISSN: 0419-4209.

***

Frauman, D.C., Lynn, S.J., Hardaway, R. & Molteni, A. (1984). Effect of subliminal symbiotic activation on hypnotic rapport and susceptibility. St. Vincent Stress Center, Indianapolis, IN. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93 (4), pp 481-483. ISSN: 0021-843X.

David Frauman, Steven Lynn, Richard Hardaway and Andrew Molteni studied 2 groups of subjects matched for susceptibility (high, medium, low) as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic susceptibility scale -- Form A.
The experimental Subjects received symbiotic ("Mommy and I are one") subliminal stimulation via tachistoscope in a double-blind design. The comparison group received a psychodynamically neutral stimulus. ("People are walking").
Following subliminal stimulation, subjects were hypnotized individually.
Projective tasks that indexed rapport with the hypnotist and the mother were administered during hypnosis. Rapport was also measured by rated intimacy of self-disclosure topics and by valence of topics selected to disclose to the hypnotics.
MANOVA showed that symbiotic fantasies had an impact on measures assumed to be relevant to affective, relationship factors in hypnosis.
Subjects in the "Mommy" group selected more positively valanced topics to disclose to the hypnotist. However, no interaction between hypnotic susceptibility level and symbiotic activation was found, suggesting that susceptibility does not mediate the rapport.

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Fribourg, A. (1981, June). The effect of fantasies of merging with a good mother on schizophrenic pathology. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 169 (6), pp 337-347. ISSN: 0022-3018.

This study was carried out in order to investigate the effect of the subliminal symbiotic stimulation alone and in conjunction with an enhancement procedure on the pathology of relatively differentiated and relatively undifferentiated schizophrenics.
It was hypothesized that enhancing the positive attributes of the schizophrenic's image of his mother prior to stimulating a fantasy of a symbiotic merger might increase his ability to benefit from the subliminal symbiotic stimulus.
The results did not support this hypothesis.
Differentiated schizophrenics who received both enhancement procedure and the subliminal symbiotic stimulus showed no pathology reduction, whereas differentiated schizophrenics who received only the subliminal symbiotic stimulus manifested significant reductions in both pathological thinking and pathological behavior.
Undifferentiated schizophrenics showed no reduction in pathology after the symbiotic stimulus regardless of whether or not they also received the enhancement procedure.
The subliminal enhancement alone, ie. without the symbiotic stimulus, resulted in reductions in pathological behavior for both differentiated and undifferentiated schizophrenics.
It was concluded that although enhancing the positive attributes of the schizophrenic's maternal representation did not increase his ability to benefit from subliminal symbiotic stimulation, it did reduce pathology in it's own right.

***

Friedman, S. (1976) Perceptual registration of the analyst outside of awareness. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 45 (1), pp 128-130.

Stanley Friedman describes a dream analysis which he knew in advance referred to his patient's perceptual registration of him outside of awareness in an extra-analytic setting.

***

Frith, U. (1972). The Georgian School of psychology: Impressions from a visit to Tbilisi. Medical Research Council Developmental Psychology Unit, London, England. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 25 (88), pp 197-201.

Uta Frith describes and discusses the concept of "set" which is central to the Georgian school of psychology. The original experiments leading to set theory are described.
Ongoing research, not hitherto published in English is described: a study of the cognitive structures of educationally subnormal children, an experiment in subliminal perception and a series of studies in semantics.

***

Fritzler, D.E., Shevrin, H. & Smith, W.H. (1970). Subliminally stimulated brain and verbal responses of twins differing in repressiveness. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 76, (1), pp 39 46. ISSN: 0021-843X.

By combining the average evoked response (AER) technique with subliminal stimulation, it has been possible to investigate unconscious mental processes in an objective and replicable way.
Previous work has shown that the AER can discriminate between two subliminal stimuli (flashed at 1 msec.), while free associations have been found to contain stimulus related words.
Repressiveness, as rated on the basis of Rorschach performance, appears to be related to a diminution of evoked response amplitude and stimulus-related associates.
In the current study, 12 pairs of twins were used as subjects.
Six pairs differed markedly in repressiveness; 6 pairs were similar in repressiveness.
Replicating previous results, it was found that the repressive twins had smaller AER amplitudes than their nonrepressive siblings and associated fewer stimulus-related words.
For supraliminal exposure (30 msec.), there was a tendency for amplitude of ARE to be reversed as a function of repressiveness.
The findings are discussed with respect to attentional and defensive factors.

***
Froufe, T.M. & Sierra, D. B. (1985). Perception without awareness. University Autonoma de Madrid, Spain. Boletin de Psicologia (Spain), 7, pp 7-50. Language: SPANISH.

This article provides a review of the literature concerning the relationship between consciousness and perception and the issue of subliminal perception.
Methodological issues are discussed, as are selective attention, central masking and binocular rivalry.
Conscious and unconscious perceptual processes are compared.

***

Froufe Torres, M. (1986). "Bias in the emission of judgments induced by masked verbal elements: Decisions made in ignorance." Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada 41(4): 695 718.

This study presents implications for the use of subliminally masked verbal messages to influence psychophysical judgements.

***

Frumkes, T.E., Sekuler, M.D., Barris, M.C., Reiss, E.H. & Chalupa, L.M. (1973). Rod Cone interaction in human scotopic vision -- I. temporal analysis. Queens College, City University of New York. Vision Research, 13 (7), pp 1269-1282.

Frumkes, Sekuler, Barris, Reiss and Chalupa studied the subliminal interactions between spatially superimposed stimuli in dark-adapted human observers.
Rods and cones were selectively stimulated.
Contrary to prior research, rod-cone interaction was demonstrated and rod signals were found to have a longer latency than cone signals.

***

Fudin, R. (1986). Subliminal psychodynamic activation: Mommy and I are not yet one. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 63 (3), pp 1159-1179.

***

Fudin, R. (1987). Subliminal psychodynamic activation: note on illumination and the bleaching hypothesis. Perceptual & Motor Skill, 64 (3 - part 2), pp 1223-1230.

***

Fudin, R. (1987). Response to Weinberger's comments on "subliminal psychodynamic activation: Mommy and I are not yet one". Perceptual & Motor Skills, 64 (2), pp 639-642.

***

Fudin, R. and C. Benjamin (1991). "Review of auditory subliminal psychodynamic activation experiments." Perceptual & Motor Skills 73(3, Pt 2): Spec Issue 1115-1136.

Examines the literature regarding auditory psychodynamic activation (SPS) experiments and concludes that the data is inconclusive. However, the authors also conclude that auditory SPA appears to have advantage over visual SPA.

***

Fudin, R. and C. Benjamin (1992). "Subliminal psychodynamic activation: Updated comprehensive list of experimental results and comments on previous lists." Perceptual & Motor Skills 74(3, Pt 1): 959-977.

The authors present a comprehensive overview of the SPA literature and conclude that the SPA theory is neither confirmed or negated by the experiments reviewed.

***

Fudin, R. (1993). "Comments on Hudesman, Page and Rautiainen's (1992) subliminal psychodynamic activation experiment." Perceptual & Motor Skills 76(1): 41-42.

***

Fudin, R. (1993). "Comments on Hudesman and Page's reply to Fudin's comments on Hudesman, Page and Rautianen's subliminal psychodynamic activation experiment." Perceptual & Motor Skills 76(3, Pt 1): 856-858.

***

Fulford, P.F. (1980). The effect of subliminal merging stimuli on test anxiety. Doctoral dissertation, St. John's University, New York. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (4-B), p. 1503.

Paul Fulford examined the effect of subliminal merging stimuli on test anxiety.
The question asked was "whether the subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies would decrease test anxiety states".
Results were measured by verbal recognition memory, psychomotor performance (as measured by a test of reaction time), and state anxiety scores on the State Trait Anxiety Inventory.
Group one received the experimental stimulus "Mommy and I are one".
Group two received the neutral stimulus "People are walking".
During each session, all subjects received pre- and post-treatment measures of psychomotor performance, anxiety level and verbal recognition memory.
Subjects in the experimental group were found to exhibit an increased level of verbal recognition memory.
The hypothesis that psychomotor activity, as measured by a test of reaction time, would be affected by the experimental treatment was not supported.
These results are consistent with studies where no relation between physiological measures and anxiety levels were found, using blood pressure and heart rate.

***

Gable, M., Wilkens, H.T., Harris, L. & Feinberg, R. (1987). An evaluation of subliminally embedded sexual stimuli in graphics. Journal of Advertising, 16 (1), pp 26-31.

This studied evaluated the effects of sexual embeds in advertising. The researchers concluded that subliminally embedding sexual material in advertising did not influence consumer preference.

***

Gabriecik, A., Fazio, R.H. (1984). Priming and frequency estimation: A strict test of the availability heuristic. Indiana University, Bloomington. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 10 (1), pp 85-89. ISSN: 0146-1672.

Adele Gabriecik & Russell Fazio studied the mediating process by manipulating availability directly using a subliminal priming procedure.
In Experiment 1, the subjects participated in a recognition experiment that showed that the word presentation was indeed subliminal.
In Experiment 2, the subjects were exposed to a series of words, none of which contained the letter "T"; identification of the words was intended to give subjects practice at the task. Subjects were then asked to identify 4 words out of the 40 flashed words (each containing the letter "T").
Finally subjects were primed with "T" words or not so primed as they verbally identified the words presented in each trail and were asked to judge the occurrence of letters.
Results show that subjects primed with the letter "T" judged the letter to occur more frequently than did the unprimed subjects.
It is suggested that the mediating process underlying use of availability heuristic is based on the ease of retrieval for frequency estimation.

***

Gade, P.A., & Gertman, D. (1979). Listening to compressed speech: The effects of instructions, experience and preference. Technical Paper 369, Education Technology and Simulation Technical Area, Alexandria, VA; U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Paul Gade and David Gertman attempted to assess the effects of different information seeking strategies on the rate at which individuals chose to listen to passages of time-compressed speech, and on their comprehension of those passages.
The research also assessed the effects of prior experience with compressed speech on listening rates and on comprehension by the subjects.
The subjects were asked to listen to 4 passages of speech in a self-paced situation, ie. at rates that would allow them to process the information ar rapidly as possible with no loss in comprehension.
Prior to listening to the passages, half of the participants were required to listen to speech compressed to twice the normal rate, whilst the other half listened to speech at the normal rate. Half of each of these two prior-experience groups were given instruction designed to induce epistemic curiosity motivation.
The remaining subjects in each of the prior- experience groups were given neutral instructions.
All participants were given 10-item, multiple choice comprehension tests at the end of each speech passage.
After listening to the fourth speech passage, participants were asked to indicate their preferred listening rates.
Speed and accuracy in listening to compressed speech were not effected by the epistemic curiosity conditions.
Prior exposure to compressed speech led to consistently faster listening rates on each of the four passages of speech.
Personnel preferred to listen to speech rates well above normal speaking rates.
Prior experience with compressed speech did not influence preferred listening rates.
Prior experience with compressed speech did, however, influence the subjects' listening rates when they were induced to listen to speech as rapidly as possible (p < .001).
Results were discussed in terms of Berlyne's (1954 & 1960) epistemic curiosity hypothesis, and in relation to the results of preference research by Lass, Foulke, Nester and Comerci (1974).

***

Gadlin, W. & Fiss, H. (1967). Odor as a facilitator of the effects of subliminal stimulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7 (1), pp 95-100. ISSN: 0022-3514.

***

Gaethke-Brandt, J.E. (1986). The effect of auditory subliminal deactivating messages on motor and task performance of hyperkinetic children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (4-A), p. 1184.
***
Galbraith, P.L. & Barton, B.W. (1990). Subliminal Relaxation: Myth or Method. Weber State University. Unpublished Dissertation.

Patricia Galbraith and Brad Barton carried out this study in order to ascertain whether subliminals are effective as relaxation tools, and if they are, how lasting is the effect.
The hypothesis is that the subliminal messages will cause a lower anxiety score on both the physiological and subjective measures, and that these effects can be maintained for at least 24 hours.
The true purpose of the experiment was disguised for the subjects so as to reduce the bias which might accompany the demand characteristics.
The experimenters were kept blind by not knowing the content of the subliminal and placebo tapes, until all the subjects were run.
The subliminal tapes used were created by Eldon Taylor of Progressive Awareness Research, using a patented process.
Three biological measures of anxiety were used; middle and index finger's Galvanic Skin Response, peripheral skin temperature recorded at the wrist, and the digital extensor muscle potential.
To obtain pre- and post-test measures of the subjective level of anxiety, the State Trait Anxiety Inventory was used.
Using a 2-way ANOVA, it was found that the overall effect of the subliminal messages as compared to the placebo tapes was insignificant. This does not, however, rule out that a possible positive subliminal effect could still exist. Variables such as a longer exposer time and more sensitive recording analysis procedures may increase the detection of a positive effect. The large individual differences also suggest the need for a more adequate sample size.
Although the bio-feedback measures for the experiment did not uphold the original hypothesis for the experiment, the State Trait Anxiety Inventory did show a significant decrease due to the subjects' exposure to the subliminal tape.
***
Galland, J.H. (1967). The effects of experimental drive arousal on response to subliminal stimulation. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 27 (11-b), p. 4123.

Jeffrey Galland examined the effects of experimental drive arousal on response to subliminal stimulation.

***

Ganovski, L. (1977). The role of peripheral perceptions in solving mental tasks. Ministry of Public Education, Suggestology Research Institute, Sofia Bulgaria. Activatas Nervosa Superior, 19 (4), pp 280-281. ISSN: 0001-7604.

Ganovski examined the role of peripheral perceptions in solving mental tasks.
It was found that unconscious perception contributes to solving mental tasks, and also that this effect is more evident in girls than boys.

***

Geisler, C.J. (1983). A new experimental method for the study of the psychoanalytic concept of repression. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (11-B), p. 3757. ISSN: 0419-4209.

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Geisler, C.J. (1986). The use of subliminal psychodynamic activation in the study of repression. New York University, School of Social Work. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (4), pp 884-851. ISSN: 0022-3514.

Carol Geisler used subliminal psychodynamic activation in the study of the clinical phenomenon of repression.
The subjects selected for the presence of high sexual guilt were divided into 2 groups.
One group showed a high degree of personality development.
From this it was inferred that this group was prone toward;

(a) the use of repression rather than more primitive defenses, and

(b) oedipal rather than pre-oedipal conflict.

The second group showed a lesser degree of personality development, thus the above inferences did not apply.
The subliminal psychodynamic activation method was used with both groups to evaluate effects on repression of intensifying and diminishing unconscious conflict over sexual wishes.
The subjects were exposed to verbal stimuli, which were;

a) conflict intensifying, ("Loving Dad is wrong"),

b) conflict reducing, ("Loving Daddy is OK"), and

c) neutral control, ("People are walking").

Each stimuli type was accompanied by a congruent picture both before (in 1 condition) and after (in another condition) a recall test of both neutral and sexual material. The conflict-reduction condition did not affect memory of the passages, but the conflict-intensification condition did

(a) for the group with the greater degree of personality development,

(b) when this condition was presented before the material to be remembered and

The special conditions necessary for the demonstration of repression show why it has previously been difficult to show evidence of repression in laboratory experiments.

***

Genkina, O.A. & Shostakovich, G.S. (1983). Elaboration of a conditioned reflex in chronic alcoholics using an unrecognizable motivationally significant word. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat., 33 (6), pp 1010-1018.

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Genkino, O.A. & Shostakovich, G.S. (1986). Conditioning of patients with chronic alcoholism by means of a subthreshold motivationally significant word. Soviet Neurology & Psychiatry, Sum. vol. 19 (2), pp 87-100.

Researchers demonstrated that the subthreshold presentation of the word "Vodka" to alcoholics resulted in an increased P300 wave change, as compared to the subthreshold presentation of a neutral word.

***

Genkino, O.A. & Shostakovich, G.S. (1987). Cortical evoked activity in the process of elaborating a conditioned connection using an unrecognizable word. Fiziol. Cheloveka., 13 (3), pp 369-378.

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George, S.G. & Jennings, L.B. (1972). Re-examination of effect of a subliminal verbal food stimulus on subjective hunger ratings. Psychological Reports, 30 (2), pp 521-522. ISSN: 0033 2941.

Stephen George and Luther Jennings examined the effects of subliminal verbal food stimulus.
The word "cheese" was flashed 30 times for two sets of experimental and control groups.
One set received the stimulus below, the other significantly above, a forced choice detection threshold.
There was no significant increase in hunger ratings found, nor was there even a trend.
The results obtained therefore with Spence (1964) who did not use a valid forced-choice method or control group.

***

Gheorghiu, V. & Kruse, P. (1990). The psychology of suggestion: and integrative perspective. In Human Suggestibility by J.F. Schunaku. Routledge.

Vladimir Gheorghiu and Peter Kruse discuss integrative approaches to modern psychology through the research of suggestive influences.
The subject matter includes discussions between ambiguity and stability, categorizing three mechanisms;

1) reflex,

2) suggestion, and

3) rational.

It is suggested that suggestion is a strategy to make unambiguous and stable order an indispensable basis of action.
Correlations between suggestion/suggestibility and stability are made.

***

Giddan, N.S. (1967). Recovery through images of briefly flashed stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35 (1), pp 1-19. ISSN: 0022-3506.

***

Giovacchini, P.L. (1984). The quest for dependent autonomy. University of Illinois College of Medicine. International Forum for Psychoanalysis, 1 (2), pp 153-166. ISSN: 0738-8217.

Peter Giovacchini examined the scientific testing of hypotheses in psychoanalytic research.
In particular, he referred to the testing of hypotheses by L.H. Silverman et al.
It was Silverman who hypothesized that fulfillment of fantasies of oneness and symbiosis could, under some circumstances, help schizophrenic patients.
In this article, it was argued that, while the work of Silverman et al does reveal a good deal about characterological psychopathology and therapy, it is an oversimplification to give this state of oneness a dominant position in emotional development and therapeutic integration.

***

Glennon, S.S. (1984). The effect of functional brain asymmetry and hemisphericity on the subliminal activation of residual oedipal conflicts. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44 (12-b), pp 3931-3932. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Subjects were tachistopically exposed to oedipal conflicts arousing and conflict-alleviating messages and congruent pictures.
The response, or sensitivity, to the conflict-related stimuli, was measured by the subject's dart-throwing ability.
With the main group of subjects, the stimuli were sent first to the right hemisphere and then to the left. This was in order to test the hypothesis that the right hemisphere may be the locus of unconscious processes.
The hemisphericity of the subjects was tested using the conjugate lateral eye movement test.
It was hypothesized that the right hemisphericity subjects would be more responsive to the subliminal stimuli.
With another group of subjects it was hypothesized that the strongest results would be found when the verbal messages were sent to the left hemisphere, and a congruent picture to the right.
No effects were found due to either hemispheric placement or the hemisphericity of the subjects.
The most significant results were found when the verbal messages were sent to the right brain and the congruent pictures to the left.

***

Glover, E.D. (1977). The influence of subliminal perception on smoking behavior. Texas Woman's University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38 (9-A), p. 5265.

Elbert Glover attempted to find out whether subliminal perception could be used as a means for altering cigarette smoking behavior.
The experimental situation consisted of two different films, shown at two different sessions, with subliminal stimulation for the treatment group.
The entire association between smoking and quitting smoking was presented subliminally.
The results showed that smoking behavior was not altered by subliminal perception as carried out in this study.

***

Glover, E.D. (1979). Decreasing smoking behavior through subliminal stimulation treatments. Journal of Drug Education, 9 (3), pp 273-283.

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Goldiamond, I. (1958). Indicators of perception: I. Subliminal perception, subception, unconscious perception: An analysis in terms of psychophysical indicator methodology. Psychological Bulletin, 55, pp 373-411.

***

Goldstein, M.J. & Barhol, R.P. Fantasy response to subliminal stimuli. Journal of Social and Abnormal Psychology, pp 22-26.

***

Goldstein, M.J. & Davis, D. (1961). The impact of stimuli registering outside of awareness upon personal preferences. Journal of Personality, 29.

***

Goldstone, G., Goldfarb, J., Strong, J. & Russell, J. (1962). Replication: the effect of subliminal shock upon the judged intensity of weak shock. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 14, p. 222.

***

Golland, J.H. (1967). The effects of experimental drive arousal on response to subliminal stimulation. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts, 27 (11-B), p. 4123.

Jeffrey Golland examined the effects of aggressive subliminal stimulation.

***

Goncalves, O.F. & Ivey, A.E. (1987). The effects of unconscious presentation of information on therapist conceptualizations, intentions and responses. University of Porto, Faculty of Psychology, Portugal. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43 (2), pp 237-245. ISSN: 0021-9762.

Oscar Goncalves and Allen Ivey studied the effects of tachistoscopic presentation of affective words on subjects' conceptualizations, intentions, and responses to a simulated client.
Four treatments were used;

1) subliminal negative emotional concepts,

2) subliminal positive emotional concepts,

3) supraliminal negative emotional concepts, and

4) supraliminal positive emotional concepts.

After the treatment, the subjects were exposed to a simulated client, whom they were asked to evaluate, respond to, and report the cognitive intentions that guided their responses.
It was found that the subliminal presentation of positive emotional concepts on subjects' conceptualizations, intentions, and responses had a significant effect.

***

Gonzalez, J.L. (1985). Subliminal stimulation and psychopathologic diagnosis. Psiquis, 6 (1), pp 30+.

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Gonzalez, J. L., E. Paolini, et al. (1989). "The unconscious in psychology and psychoanalysis." Psiquis 10(2): 15-25.

This paper discusses the empirical evidence that supports the hypothesis that subliminal stimuli may have an effect on behavior.

***
Gordon, C.M. & Spence, D.P. (1966). The facilitating effects of food set and food deprivation on responses to a subliminal food stimulus. Research Center For Mental Health, New York University. Journal of Personality, 34 (3), pp 406-415. ISSN: 0022-3506.

Carol Gordon and Donald Spence tested whether the sensitivity to a subliminal stimulus could be increased by arousing a congruent cognitive set in food-deprived subjects.
The experimental group read a paragraph about food while the control group read a non food related paragraph.
Both groups were then exposed to subliminal cheese stimulus, followed by a supraliminal list of cheese associates and matched control words.
A second set of subjects were exposed to the same paragraphs and a blank slide, followed again by the same list of words.
Subjects who had been deprived of food, and were presented with the food set and the subliminal stimulus, showed a greater effect then the subjects who had not been deprived of food, who read the non-food paragraph and were exposed to the subliminal stimulus.
It was suggested that the subject's cognitive awareness is particularly important when using verbal stimuli and verbal responses.
The subjects's must also be helped to code his bodily sensations, particularly when the stimulus is subliminal.

***

Gordon G. (1967). Semantic determination by subliminal verbal stimuli: A quantitative approach, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of London.

Gordon used a semantic differential to measure the degree of subliminal perception.
***

Gordon, W.K. (1983). Combination of cognitive group therapy and subliminal stimulation in treatment of text-anxious college males. North Texas State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (11-B), p. 3731. ISSN: 0419-4209.

***

Grant, R.H. (1980). The effects of subliminally projected visual stimuli on skill development, selected attention, and participation in racquetball by college students. East Texas State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (2-A), p, 585.

Roger Grant carried out this study in order to investigate the effects of subliminally presented visual stimuli on;

1) the development of racquetball ceiling shot skill,

2) the submission of selected attention toward the racquetball ceiling shot, and

3) the response level for participation in racquetball.

Subjects underwent one of four treatments;

1) no exposure to subliminal stimuli,

2) exposure to a subliminally projected film loop depicting two demonstrations of the racquetball ceiling shot - one performed by a male, the other a female,

3) exposure to a subliminally projected slide containing a man and a woman embracing in the nude with the superimposed words "racquetball", "relate" and "sex", and

4) exposure to a simultaneous subliminal projection of a film loop depicting two demonstrations of the racquetball ceiling shot - one performed

***

Greenberg, R.P. & Fisher, S. (1980). Freud's penis-baby equation: Exploratory tests of a controversial theory. State University of New York, Upstate Medical Center. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 53 (4), pp 333-342. ISSN: 0007-1129.

Roger Greenberg and Seymour Fisher studied Freud's idea that pregnancy has phallic significance for women.
Tests were carried out to see whether there is a link between pregnancy and phallic imagery.
It was found that there is such a link as subjects produced significantly more phallic imagery on an inkblot measure during pregnancy than they produced in the nonpregnant state.
Pregnant subjects also produced significantly more phallic imagery than did a control group of nonpregnant subjects.
The "penis-baby" link was seen as the subjects increased significantly in their phallic imagery under the impact of a subliminal pregnancy message.
No such increase occurred in the group of subjects who receiving a subliminal message dealing with being penetrated.
***

Greenberg, A. C. (1990). Response to subliminally activated fantasies of symbiotic-like oneness: A function of gender or psychological differentiation?, Long Island U Brooklyn Ctr, NY, US.

***

Greenberg, A. C. (1990). "Response to subliminally activated fantasies of symbiotic-like oneness: A function of gender or psychological differentiation?" Perceptual & Motor Skills 71(3, Pt 2): 1179-1187.

Results of this study show that subjects highly differentiated from their mothers responded adaptively to the symbiotic message "Mommy and I are One," developed by Silverman. However, the data did not reach statistical significance.

***
Greenberg, A. C. (1992). "Subliminal psychodynamic activation method and annihilation anxiety: Preliminary findings." Perceptual & Motor Skills 74(1): 219-225.

This study employed the presentation of the "momy and I are One" message via tachistoscope presentation to measure the effect on annihilation anxiety, state anxiety and psychological differentiation. Results showed a significantly lower anxiety in female subjects but a negative correlation in male subjects between annihilation anxiety and psychological differentiation.

***

Greenwald, A. G., E. R. Spangenberg, et al. (1991). "Double-blind tests of subliminal self-help audiotapes." Psychological Science 2(2): 119-122.

This study employed commercially available subliminal self-help (SSH) audiotapes to measure the expectation factor and labels. The researchers obtained commercial tapes from five companies in the domains of self esteem and memory. They switched the labels on the tapes and measured outcome statistically and from self reports. General findings suggest that the influence of the label played a role in expectation and reported effect (self appraisal) but statistical data failed to support the self appraisal reports.
This study led the researchers to condemn all SSH as therapeutically ineffective.

***

Groeger, J.A. (1984) Evidence of unconscious semantic processing from a forced error situation. Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland. British Journal of Psychology, 75 (3), pp 305 314. ISSN: 0007-1269.

Groeger carried out a study to determine whether subjects extract information from words presented below their recognition and awareness thresholds.
A series of target words was used to generate the word matrix, which was a set of 24 words related to the target word.
The subjects chose the word they thought had been shown from the word matrix for that particular target.
It was thought that the alternative chosen was a function of the type of processing the target was receiving.
It was found that structural analysis of the target predominated below recognition threshold, whereas semantic analysis predominated below awareness threshold.

***

Groeger, J.A. (1986). Predominant and non-predominant analysis: Effects of level of presentation. MRC Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge, England. British Journal of Psychology, 77 (1), pp 109-116. ISSN: 007-1269.

In a previous study, Groeger found that stimuli outside awareness receive a predominantly semantic analysis, whereas unrecognized stimuli are processed in a predominantly structural fashion.
The aim of this study was to extend these findings to another sense mode -- hearing -- and a different task -- sentence completion.
From the results it was seen that non-predominant analyses, if carried out at all, did not influence the outcomes of predominant processing.
This suggests that the type of analysis automatically carried out on stimuli depends on the level at which they are received and requires a complex, nonlinear view of the perceptual process.

***

Groeger, J. A. (1986). "Preconscious influences on word substitutions." Irish Journal of Psychology 7(2): 88-97.

Subthreshold effects were shown in this study that evaluate priming at subawareness and subrecognition levels.

***

Gruber, R.P. (1970). Learning without verbalization of awareness. Psychology, 7 (1), pp 2-8. Biomedical Department, Edgewood Arsenal, MD.

Ronald Gruber discusses learning without verbalization.
Examples of learning without the verbalization of awareness include;

1) sleep,

2) state-dependent learning,

3) conditioning under anesthesia,

4) learning after bilateral hippocampal lesions,

5) unilateral cerebral hemispheric learning,

6) agnosia,

7) nonverbal classical conditioning, and

8) subception.

Also discussed was the potential for more such learning situations.

***

Grzegolowska-Klarkowska, H. (1981). Perceptual defense -- mechanics, correlates, synthesis: II. Przeglad Psychologiczny, 24 (2), pp 299-318. ISSN: 004-85675.

Helena Grzegolowska-Klarkowska discusses perceptual defense .
From the learning and information processing theory, possible mechanics for the way perceptual defense (PD) works are pit forward.
Also discussed is subception versus the perception of the partial cues hypothesis.
It is concluded that PD and repression are two different defense mechanisms that operate at different points along the information processing continuum.

***

Gustafson, R. and H. Kallmen (1990). "Subliminal stimulation and cognitive and motor performance." Perceptual & Motor Skills 71(1): 87-96.

This study presented the symbiotic Mommy message to 60 adults before testing motor performance. The results showed a significant improvement in motor performance, but not evenly for all subjects.

***

Gustafson, R. and H. Kallmen (1990). "Reply to Fudin's comments on Gustafson and Kallmen's experiment on subliminal psychodynamic activation." Perceptual & Motor Skills 71(3, Pt 1): 1029-1030.

Gustafson, R. and H. Kallmen (1991). "Subliminal psychodynamic activation: An experiment controlling for major possible confounding influences outlined by Fudin." Perceptual & Motor Skills 73(1): 163-171.

Fudin's recommendation to control for confounding and irrelevant influences was applied in two experiments with the "Mommy" symbiotic. Results showed significant improvement in motor performance but only with the full symbiotic message.

***

Guthrie, C. & Weiner, M. (1966). Subliminal perception or perception of partial cues with pictorial stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3 (6), pp 619-628. ISSN: 0022-3514.

***

Guttman, G., Ganglberger, J. (1967). Conditioned verbal reactions triggered by subliminal thalamic stimulation. University of Vienna, Psychologisches Inst., Austria. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 14 (3), pp 542-544. ISSN: 0044-2712, Language: GERMAN.

Giselher Guttman and Josef Ganglberger examined the ability of thalamic stimulations to evoke verbal CRS.
During neurosurgery, the patient was asked to recite the numbers 1 to 9 in any order.
A number pair was selected and a thalamic stimulus given whenever the 1st number of the pair was spoken.
In the test phase thalamic stimuli were given only after numbers that differed from the preferred numbers.
It was found that the occurrence of the 2nd number was given significantly more often after thalamic stimulation.

***
Habeck, B.K. (1984). The effect of gender, hemispheric preference, semanticity and lateralization upon sensitivity to auditory subliminal stimuli on children. Marquette University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (2-A), pp 460-461. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Beverly Habeck performed this study in order to determine to what extent, if any, the variables gender, hemispheric preference, semanticity, message lateralization and/or their interactions influenced children's susceptibility to auditory subliminal stimuli as measured by subjects rating their internal and external affective environments.
Children, from 8- to 12-years-old, were screened for dexterity, unilateral hemispheric preference and functional auditory threshold.
Stimuli were presented at 5dB below that threshold through headphones.
Verbal and nonverbal positive subliminal stimuli were used.
Following subliminal stimulation, the subjects were asked to look at a projected slide of a blurred neutral face.
The subjects rated the face on 5 adjective continua and then rated their personal affect, using the same 5 scales.
The results show that;

1) the subjects with left hemisphere preference were significantly more sensitive to subliminal messages than the subjects preferring right hemisphere cognition,

2) the subjects processing messages unilaterally were significantly more susceptible to subliminal messages than subjects in the control group,

3) the subjects' personal affect was influenced at a significantly greater level than subjects' impressions of the neutral face.

4) significant differences emerged among the rating scales employed, with some scales being more sensitive than others to the subliminal effect.

***

Haberstroh, J. (1984). Can't ignore subliminal ad charges. Advertising Age, 55 (61), pp 3, 42, 44. ISSN: 0001-8899.

Jack Haberstroh discusses the work of Wilson Bryan Key.
Key believes that subliminal messages are widespread in advertising, and has written three successful books on subliminal persuasion, with the fourth nearing completion.
Advertising executives view Key as being paranoid, and obsessed with sex.
A survey of art directors of 100 advertising agencies, selected from the Standard Directory of Advertising Agencies, indicated that the majority of respondents disagreed that creative or account people added extra messages to their work.

***

Halpren, S. (1985) Sound Health, San Francisco: Harper & Row.

Steven Halpren asserts that unheard sounds and vibrations are as important as the ones which are perceived.

***

Hamilton, S.B. & Bornstein, P.H. (1979). Broad-spectrum behavioral approach to smoking cessation: Effects of social support and paraprofessional training on the maintenance of treatment effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, pp 598-600.

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Hansen, J. R. (1988). The relationship of subliminally activated psychodynamic conflict to anorexic performance on a lexical decision task, State U New York, Buffalo, US.

***

Hansen, P. (1984). Subliminal perception. Paper presented to International Motivation Conference. Canberra, Australia.
Dr. Philip Hansen states that the subliminal domain is an essential, but often overlooked, partner in the process of integrating the wonders of the cosmos with our internal universe of perceptual ideation.
An example of the use of subliminals to positive effect, is in dealing with test anxiety.
Tests are a vital part of schooling, but test failure is not always the result of insufficient conscious knowledge. Often it's inadequacy of personal subjective state systems which supply the psychic resources to enable the objective state the preciseness tests require.
Subliminal techniques give us access to the support subsystems of the subjective states.

***

Hardaway, R.A. (1986). (Cited in Bower, N., 1986, p. 156) University of Southern California in Los Angeles.

Richard Hardaway, in an unpublished statistical analysis of 68 studies using Silverman's "Mommy and I are one" subliminal message discovered a small, statistically significant difference in behavioral improvement for people exposed to the message.

***

Hardaway, R.A. (1987). Facts and fantasies in subliminal psychodynamic activation: a qualitative analysis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (12-b, part 1), pp 5054.

***

Hardaway, R. A. (1990). "Subliminally activated symbiotic fantasies: Facts and artifacts." Psychological Bulletin 107(2): 177-195.

A review procedure correcting statistical artifacts using a meta-analysis method showed small but significant effects from the use of the symbiotic "Mommy" message.

***

Hardy, G.R. & Legge, D. (1968). Cross-modal induction of changes in sensory thresholds. University College, London, UK. Quarterly Journal of Experiment Psychology, 20 (1), pp 20 29.

Two experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that threshold changes induced by emotional stimulation are mediated centrally.
In the first experiment, the visual awareness threshold for neutral material was raised for the subjects by simultaneous auditory presentation of emotional words.
This result supported the hypothesis.
In the second experiment, a similar effect was obtained when the two modalities were reversed.
The results showed that subliminal stimulation through one modality with emotional material impairs detection performance in a different modality.
Lower signal detection sensitivity may be caused either by attenuation of incoming signals, or by an increase in the level of "noise" against which the signal is received.

***

Harrison, R.H. (1970). Effect of subliminal shock conditioning on recall. Boston University. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 75 (1), pp 19-29.

Robert Harrison presented words at chance recognition levels and paired them with either the abrupt initiation or cessation of shock conditioning procedures.
Experiment I showed that words associated with abrupt initiation of shock conditioning appeared later in free recall than words associated with cessation of shock conditioning.
Experiment II replicated the results of Experiment I when the subjects task during conditioning was irrelevant to recognizing words.
Experiment III, using 50 percent of the stimulus intensity of Experiments I and II, demonstrated residual differentiation in recall between the words actually presented and those whose presentation was simulated.
Results are interpreted as evidence for subliminal perception.

***

Hart, L. (1973). The effects of noxious subliminal stimuli on the modification of attitudes toward alcoholism: A pilot study. Boston City Hospital, MA. British Journal of Addiction, 68 (2), pp 87-90.

***

Hasher, L. & Zacks, R.T. (1979). Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 108, pp 356-388.

***

Haspel, K.C. & Harris, R.S. (1982). Effect of tachistoscopic stimulation of subconscious oedipal wishes on competitive performance: A failure to replicate. Kent County Mental Health Center, Warwick, RI. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (6), pp 437-443. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Katherine Haspel and Robert Harris studied the effects of subconscious oedipal wishes on competitive performance.
The research was designed to,

(a) replicate the study by L.H. Silverman et al (1978), who found that subjects' dart throwing performance improved after they viewed the subliminal stimulus "Beating dad is OK" and worsened after they viewed "Beating dad is wrong";

(b) to see if dart-throwing behavior is also affected by supraliminal oedipal stimulation; and

(c) to investigate the influence of priming (i.e., pre-experimental arousal of oedipal wishes) on the effect of tachistoscopic stimulation.

Silverman's results were not replicated despite close adherence to the methodology, nor were other significant effects found.

***

Hayden, B. & Silverstein, R. (1983). The effects of tachistoscopic oedipal stimulation on competitive dart throwing. Brown University. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 23 (1). ISSN: 0348-3673.

Brian Hayden and Robert Silverstein studied the effects of subliminal psychodynamic activation on competitive dart-throwing.
Pre- and post-test measures were taken of dart-throwing accuracy under various experimental conditions.
The experimental conditions consisted of tachistoscopic exposures (4 msec) of verbal and congruous pictorial stimuli.
In experiment 1, the subjects were exposed to the subliminal stimuli; "Beating Dad is okay"' "Beating Dad is wrong", "Mommy and I are one" and "People are walking."
In experiment 2, the subjects were exposed to the subliminal stimuli; "Beating Dad is OK", "Beating Dad is wrong", "Defeating Dad is OK" and "Defeating Dad is wrong."
In experiment 3, the subjects were exposed to the subliminal stimuli; "Winning Mom is ok", "Winning Mom is wrong", "Winning Dad is OK" and "Winning Dad is wrong."
In Experiments 1 and 2, stimuli that sanctioned the idea of beating father in competition enhanced dart-throwing accuracy, while stimuli that condemned this idea impaired accuracy.
Experiment III demonstrated that stimuli sanctioning the idea of winning mother enhanced performance, while stimuli condemning this idea impaired accuracy.

***

Hayden, M. (1989). The effects of subliminal presentation of loss-related stimuli on the mood of individuals who have experienced early object loss, Fairleigh Dickinson U, NJ, US.

***

Hayes, K. C., R. D. Allatt, et al. (1992). "Reinforcement of subliminal flexion reflexes by transcranial magnetic stimulation of motor cortex in subjects with spinal cord injury." Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology: Electromyography & Motor Control 85(2): 102-109.

Determined low intensity electrical stimui could facilitate subliminal motor evoked potentials.

***

Heflin, S. S. (1991). The effect of selected subliminal suggestion upon the self-confidence of undergraduate students, East Texas State U, US.

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Heidorn, R., Jr. (May 16, 1988). Jail tries subliminal, and disputed technique. The Philadelphia Inquirer, pp 1-B, 3-B.

This article describes a 6-month trial of subliminal tapes for reducing absenteeism among sheriff's officers and correctional officers.
The three themes used were promoting positive self-image, relieving stress and reducing absenteeism.

***

Heilbrun, K.S. (1980a). The effects of subliminally presented oedipal stimuli on competitive performance. University of Texas, Austin. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (4-B), p. 1506.

Kirk Heilbrun examined the effects of subliminally presented oedipal stimuli on competitive performance.

***

Heilbrun, K.S. (1980b). Silverman's subliminal psychodynamic activation: A failure to replicate. University of Texas, Austin. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89 (4), pp 560-566. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Kirk Heilbrun tested Silverman's report that subliminally presented stimuli, designed to increase or decrease oedipal conflict, can affect competitive performance.
None of the experiments showed any difference between performance following exposure to subliminal oedipal conditions and performance following neutral baseline conditions.
The results should be also considered in light of the changes which were made over the course of these experiments that produced a bias in favor of replication.

***

Heilbrun, K.S. (1982). Reply to Silverman. Florida State University, Tallahassee. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (2), pp 134-135. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Kirk Heilbrun replies to comments made by Silverman regarding the author's failure to replicate Silverman's work on subliminal symbiotic stimulation as an adjunct to systematic desensitization.

***

Henke, K., T. Landis, et al. (1993). "Subliminal perception of pictures in the right hemisphere." Consciousness & Cognition: an International Journal 2(3): 225-236.

Using a tacistoscope the researchers demonstrated that a picture can be perceived below the level of awareness, but only the right hemispher can perceive them and make use of the perception.

***

Henke, K., T. Landis, et al. (1994). "Subliminal perception of words and faces." International Journal of Neuroscience 75(3-4): 181-187.

This study showed that words presented subliminal to the left hemsiphere influenced decisions by men but not by women.
***

Henley, S.H. (1975). Cross modal effects of subliminal verbal stimuli. University College, London, UK. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 16 (1), pp 30-36.

Sue Henley conducted a cross model version of an experiment by C.J. Smith et al on the effects of subliminal auditory cue words upon judgements of a supraliminal visual stimulus.
To one ear she put supraliminal sounds or descriptions. To the other ear she provided, or didn't provide according to the experiment subliminal cues.
It was found that, when subliminal cues were provided, performance was improved. The results support the hypothesis that material in an unattended channel is fully analyzed for meaning and may be integrated with materials in an attended channel when it is relevant to the ongoing task.
The results therefore show that the use of subliminal communication can actually facilitate conventional, traditional learning.
The same results were also found when visual subliminal cues were used in place of the audio subliminal cues.
This provides support for the Poetzl phenomenon.

***

Henley, S.H. (1975). Responses to homophones as a function of cue words on the unattended channel. University College, London, UK. British Journal of Psychology, 67 (4), pp 559-567.

Sue Henley tested a prediction based on the model of attention advanced by Dixon (1971), that the responses to homophones presented to one ear, at supraliminal intensities, would be influenced by subliminal cue words presented to the other ear.
The results supported the hypothesis in terms of response latencies, but not in terms of verbal content.
It is suggested that these data make it possible to reconcile apparent discrepancies between the results of other studies of dichotic listening.

***

Henley, S.H. (1984). Unconscious perception revisited: A comment on Merikle's (1982) paper. University of London, University College, England. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22 (2), pp 121-124. ISSN: 0090-5054.

Sue Henley states that, contrary to P.M. Merikle's implications, the case for unconscious perception does not stand or fall with evidence from the backward masking studies that are the focus of his criticisms.
Evidence that the brain can respond to stimulus material of which the recipient remains unaware is provided.
It is argued that, since the threshold-determining procedures employed in the backward masking studies were inappropriate, Merikle's particular criticism of these procedures are irrelevant.

***

Henley, S.H., & Dixon, N.F. (1974). Laterality differences in the effect of incidental stimuli upon evoked imagery. British Journal of Psychology, 65 (4), pp 529-536. ISSN: 0007-1269.

***

Henley, S.H. & Dixon, N.F. (1976). Preconscious processing in schizophrenics: An exploratory investigation. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 49 (2), pp 161-166. ISSN: 0007-1129.

***

Herrick, R.M. (1973). Increment thresholds for multiple identical flashes in the peripheral retina. U.S. Naval Air Development Center, Warminster, PA. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 63 (10), pp 1261-1265.

Robert Herrick performed this experiment to determine the light detection threshold for various numbers of subliminal flashes.
The results indicated that when the flash duration, t, equaled the interval, i, between successive flashes, the threshold luminance was described by the equation , I=a+(b/nt), where a and b are constants.
This equation is analogous to the Blondel-Rey Law.
When the interval was held constant at 30 msec, the total threshold energy, E, increased linearly with the number of flashes regardless of the duration of the identical flashes in the train.
As the interval between 2 successive subliminal flashes increased, E increased until it reached a value roughly equal to twice its initial value, and thereafter it remained constant

***

Hess, J. (1981). Subliminal suggestion during anesthesia to control postoperative complications. (Letter). AANA Journal, 49 (2), pp 209-210. ISSN: 0094-6354.

In this letter to AANA Journal, John Hess describes how subliminal suggestions can be used during Innovar -nitrous oxide anesthesia to control postoperative complications, most notably pain and nausea.
In his experiment, a tape containing postoperative suggestions were played to subjects while they were under Innovar -nitrous oxide anesthetic.
The subjects were then questioned a few days postoperatively for any recall experiences they had.
Upon questioning, some of the subjects made statements that were exactly the same as on the tape, except that they were in the subjective tense, while others imparted just the basic ideas.
When the experimental results were compared with previous anesthetic requirements for similar surgeries, the results were found to be favorable.
In conclusion Hess states that subliminal suggestions are of value in control of nausea and in the patient's acceptance of hospital procedures and routines.

***

Higgins, K. (1983). Marketers give quality image to generics to improve sales. Marketing News, 17 (23), p 4. ISSN: 0025-3790,

Kevin Higgins discusses the ways by which Oriove Enterprises, is fighting the problem of marketing generic drugs.
Generic drugs lack a quality image, and one approach suggested is designing the packages to form a subliminal attachment to the national brand with which it competes.

***

Higginson, G.D. (1926). The visual apprehension of movement under successive retinal excitations. American Journal of Psychology, 37, pp 76-77.

In this article, Glenn Higginson describes the early use of the Dodge tachistoscope in the psychology laboratory.

***

Hill, A. (1993). "Non-conscious processes and semantic image profiling." Journal of the Market Research Society 35(4): 315-323

Discusses the use of subliminal perception in advertising.

***

Hines, K.S. (1978). Subliminal psychodynamic activation of oral dependency conflicts in a group of hospitalized male alcoholics. Memphis State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 38 (11-B), p. 4123.

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Hobbs, S.R. (1984). The effects of subliminal stimulation of oedipal and symbiotic gratification fantasies on racial attitudes. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (3 B), p. 1018. ISSN: 0419-4209.

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the unconscious oedipal fantasy on racial prejudice, and also to explore the influence of the symbiotic gratification fantasy on racial attitudes.
The subliminal psychodynamic activation method was used to activate fantasies sanctioning oedipal feelings ("Winning Mom is OK" for males, and "Winning Dad is OK" for females) and a fantasy of symbiotic-like gratification ("Mommy and I are one").
Subjects in the experimental groups were compared to the to those receiving a neutral control stimulus ("People are walking).
A replication of a study linking the unconscious symbiotic fantasy and learning was built into this research as an independent way of evaluating if the stimulus was making an impact.
The results of this study did not support the hypothesis that sanctioning oedipal fantasies would reduce racist attitudes. Significant results were, however, attained in the opposite direction hypothesized.
Males in the oedipal group were significantly more prejudiced post-stimulation than those in the symbiotic and control groups. The female groups did not differ significantly.
In keeping with earlier studies, the activation of the symbiotic fantasy was effective in improving final examination grades.
Males in the symbiotic and oedipal groups did significantly better than the controls, but did not significantly differ from each other. Results for females were not significant.
These findings suggest that unconscious fantasies may influence racial attitudes, but that the nature of the fantasies, and the anxieties and conflicts which they are presumed to stimulate, need further study.
The difference in results for males and females raise several questions about both psychodynamic and social understanding of the differences in the way men and women develop and function in our society.

***

Hodorowski, L. (1986). The symbiotic fantasy as a therapeutic agent: An experimental comparison of the effects of four symbiotic contexts on manifest pathology in differentiated schizophrenics. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (8-B), p. 2810. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Lenore Hodorowski conducted this experiment to determine the efficacy of pictorial merging contexts for subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies as a therapeutic modality for differentiated schizophrenics.

***

Hoffman, J.S. (1986) Review of the subliminal psychodynamic activation method. Doctor of Psychology Research Paper, Biola University, California.

Janice Hoffman performed this study in order to determine the validity of the criticisms regarding the use of subliminal psychodynamic activation (SPA), and also to ascertain the potential usefulness of SPA method for testing theoretical constructs such as intrapsychic conflict and wishes for merger.
It was found that methodological weaknesses do exist in the assessment of changes in psychopathological symptomatology due to the use of subliminal stimuli, and the specific stimuli used to effect these changes.
In studies with both schizophrenic and nonschizophrenic populations, no validity data were reported in the literature for any of the measures used.
However, in spite of the limitations in interpreting the results of SPA studies, the SPA method has been shown to be effective in producing specific results in a variety of diagnostic groups.
This method has also given further evidence of the unconscious nature of intrapsychic processes.
In this way the SPA method has at least given evidence that the pursuit of testing psychoanalytic constructs is a worthwhile and plausible effort with important implications for both the theory and treatment of psychopathological symptomatology.

***

Hollingworth, M. (1985, January 30). Subliminal tapes halve thefts in chain store. Retail World, p 14.

Hollingworth reported two research studies where subliminal messages reduced theft considerably.
In the first study an Australian supermarket reduced shrinkage by more that 50 percent.
In the second study, a nine-month test in several U.S. stores, shrinkage was reduced by 37 percent.
***

Holmes, D. A. (1991). Effects of subliminal psychodynamic activation, U Oklahoma, US.

***

Holtzman, D. (1975). Recall and importations on a word test primed by a subliminal stimulus. Wayne State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (5-B), p. 2473.
Deanna Holtzman designed this study in order to partially replicate, validate and explore the stimulus conditions under which the phenomena reported by Spence and Gordon (1966) occur.
Under particular investigation was the effects of an oral priming subliminal stimulus on recall of a word list, taking into account a personality variable (orality) and a manipulated experimental condition of drive arousal (accepted-rejected).
The hypothesis put forward was that High Oral Rejected subjects who were subliminally stimulated, would recall and import more regressive words.
Each subjects was given a WAIS Digit-Symbol subtest, and made to feel either accepted or rejected on the basis of his performance.
The subjects were then asked to learn one of three lists of words;

1) relating to the infantile nursing situation (primitive),

2) relating to a more socialized eating situation (conceptual), and

3) a neutral subset.

The subjects were further divided into;

1) those who received a subliminal primer (milk),

2) those who received a supraliminal primer (milk), and

3) those who received a blank slide.

High and low oral subjects were determined by the responses to a questionnaire, which showed whether the subjects used food as an affection substitute under conditions of rejection or stress.
The results indicated that the high oral subjects do not import nor remember significantly more oral regressive words.
There was however a significant interaction between the subliminal variable and the kinds of words recalled from the list, in that the subjects who received subliminal stimulation recalled more primitive than conceptual words.
***
Hovsepian, W. & Quatman, G. (1978). Effects of subliminal stimulation of masculinity femininity ratings of a male model. Xavier University, OH. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 46, (1), pp 155-161. ISSN: 0031-5125.

William Hovsepian and Gerald Quatman tested the effects of subliminal stimulation on masculinity-femininity ratings of a male model.
The subjects were divided into 4 groups and individually shown a slide of a male model with one of four subliminal stimuli;

1) group one group received no subliminal stimulation,

2) group 2 received a subliminal flash of white light across the image of the model,

3) group 3 was presented with the message "masculine", and

4) group 4 was presented with the subliminal message "feminine."

The subjects were asked to rate the model on a 6-point scale.
The results gave no significant difference in ratings among the groups, which indicated that subliminal stimulation did not influence masculinity-femininity value-norm-anchor judgments.
There were no significant differences in the reported perception of additional stimuli or the tendency to be relaxed among the 4 groups.
However, subjects who received the "masculine" message and reported that they were more relaxed did tend to rate the model higher in masculinity.

***

Hull, E.I. (1976). Ego states characteristics of enhanced utilization of subliminal registrations. University of Chicago. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37 (4-B), pp 1903-1904.

***

Hutchison, M. (1986). Megabrain. Ballantine Books, New York.

Michael Hutchison discusses new tools and techniques for brain growth and mind expansion.

***

Hudesman, J., W. Page, et al. (1992). "Use of subliminal stimulation to enhance learning mathematics." Perceptual & Motor Skills 74(3, Pt 2): Spec Issue 1219-1224.

Subjects who had failed the mathematics portion of university skills assessment test were exposed to the merging message. Subjects in the experimental group improved while no improvement was found in the control group.

***

Hudesman, J. and W. Page (1993). "Reply to Fudin's (1993-sub(B)) comments on Hudesman and Page's response to Fudin's (1993-sub(A)) comments on Hudesman, Page, and Rautiainen's subliminal psychodynamic activation experiment." Perceptual & Motor Skills 76(3, Pt 2): 1097 1098.

***

Hudesman, J. and W. Page (1993). "Reply to Fudin's comments on Hudesman, Page, and Rautianen's experiment on the use of subliminal psychodynamic activation to enhance mathematics learning." Perceptual & Motor Skills 76(3, Pt 1): 733-734.

***

Hylton, R.L. (1979). A comparison of the effects of aural arousal on the verbal learning of normal and learning disabled elementary school pupils. Doctoral dissertation, St. John's University, NY. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (3-B), p. 1393.

Robert Hylton investigated the effects of graduated levels of accessory auditory stimulation upon the verbal learning proficiency in normal and learning disabled children.
The subjects were divided into normal, visual and auditory learning disabled, and were each tested for his/her auditory threshold level.
The subjects were then given the task of learning word-number paired associates under a no-noise condition and six levels of accessory stimulation (white nose). The 6 levels included 3 subliminal and 3 supraliminal levels.
The three groups were subdivided into nine subgroups and exposed to accessory stimulation while;

a) learning the material (input),

b) at recall (output), and

c) at both the input and output.

From the results it was found that;

1) learning was enhanced by subliminal stimulation,

2) there was no differential facilitation among the three groups,

3) presentation of accessory auditory stimulation at both the input and output levels combined did not result in better performance at either the input or output levels, and

4) there was no variation in performance between males and females.

In conclusion, the results showed that subliminal arousal facilitated short-term memory in paired associate learning in elementary pupils in general.

***

Ionescu, M. D. and M. H. Erdelyi (1992). The direct recovery of subliminal stimuli. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 143-169.
(from the chapter) the notion that subliminal stimuli can exert influence on the unaware observer, although still controversial, ...is rapidly becoming the consensus view in experimental psychology / it has often been assumed ...that such "subception" effects imply that the stimuli are registered and stored unconsciously / if so, might it be possible to go beyond indirect effects (such as influences on free associations, fantasy, and affective or social judgments) and show the availability of subliminal contents by recovering them directly into consciousness / this last question, on the retrievability into consciousness of subliminal inputs, is the topic of the present chapter.

***

Ionescu, M. D. (1993). Hypermnesia for subliminal stimuli, City U New York, US.

***

Jackson, J.M. (1982). A comparison of the effects of subliminally presented fantasies of merger with each parent on the pathology of male and female schizophrenics. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (5-B), pp 1616-1617. ISSN: 0419-4209.

***

Jackson, J.M. (1983). Effects of subliminal stimulation of oneness fantasies on manifest pathology in male vs. female schizophrenics. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 17 (5), pp 280-289. ISSN: 0022-3018.

Jonathan Jackson examined the effects of subliminally activated fantasies of oneness with each parent on the manifest pathology of schizophrenic men and women.
The subjects were treated individually for 3 subliminal stimulation (SST) sessions on different days, when measures of pathological thinking and behavior were obtained for a baseline assessment before SST, and a critical assessment after SST.
All subjects received two subliminal oneness stimuli and a neutral-control message;

1) "Mommy and I are one" plus congruent picture,

2) "Daddy and I are one" plus congruent picture, and

3) a neutral-control message "people are walking" plus a congruent picture.

Each subject was administered a family interview and a family picture test (a card from the Children's Apperception Test).
The results for symbiotic stimulation show that;

(a) the "mommy" stimulus reduced pathological behavior in males but not females, and

(b) the "daddy" stimulus reduced pathological thinking in females but not males.

The results of the family interview and picture test indicate that the more male Subject experienced active involvement with one parent, the more they reduced pathology after the oneness stimulus involving that parent, and the less they did so after the stimulus involving the other parent.

***

Jacoby, L. L. and K. Whitehouse (1989). "An illusion of memory: False recognition influenced by unconscious perception." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118(2): 126-135.

Two studies were conducted by the researchers demonstrating that an illusion of memory can be generated by unconscious perception. Unconscious influences are discussed in relation to the attribution process.

***

Jacoby, L. L., J. P. Toth, et al. (1992). Lectures for a layperson: Methods for revealing unconscious processes. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 81-120.

(from the chapter) the importance of subjective experience / present evidence to show that subjective experience is constructed and reflects an unconscious inference or attribution process / argue that awareness is a prerequisite for conscious control and that an important function of conscious control is to oppose unconscious influences / describe the methodological advantages of arranging a situation such that consciously controlled and unconscious processes act in opposition to one another /// describe the process dissociation procedure and show how it can be used to derive separate quantitative estimates of consciously controlled and unconscious processes / discuss the advantages of separating the contributions of conscious and unconscious processes within a task as compared to focusing on dissociations between tasks and identifying tasks with particular types of processes / (conclude) by identifying unconscious influences with automaticity and by emphasizing parallels between unconscious perception and effects produced by dividing attention.

***

Jacoby, L. L. and C. M. Kelley (1992). "A process-dissociation framework for investigating unconscious influences: Freudian slips, projective tests, subliminal perception, and signal detection theory." Current Directions in Psychological Science 1(6): 174-179.

Unconscious processes can be treated in a similar manner to signal detection theory.

***

Jeffmar, M. (1976).Ways of cognitive action: A study of syncretism, flexibility and exactness. Lund University. Psychological Research Bulletin, NO. 1 (Mono series), 47 pages.

Marianne Jeffmar studied the relationships among syncretism, flexibility and exactness, variables of the Gestalt Completion Test (GCT) and susceptibility to subliminal stimulation.
Subjects were administered a test for reproduction, 5 tests of syncretism and flexibility, a card-index cabinet (CIC) task, and an interview. They were also presented with 2 sets of GCT pictures and with 5 nouns which were exposed 30% below their awareness threshold.
The results indicate that there are two cognitive styles, "reproducing literally," and "making additions,". The former characterizing exact subjects, the latter syncretizing and flexible subjects.
The results suggest that the combination of syncretism and flexibility results in creativity. Syncretizing-flexible subjects tended to use original methods in the CIC task and to be engaged in "creative work." Further, they tended to give original responses to the GCT.
The syncretism combined with flexibility, choice of a creative occupation, originality shown in the CIC task, and the use of additions are further connected with susceptibility to subliminal stimulation.

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Jelley, G. C. (1988). The impact of subliminal oneness messages: A theoretical and empirical study, Georgia State U, Coll of Arts & Sciences, US.

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Jennings, L.B. & George, S.G. (1975). Perceptual vigilance and defense revisited: Evidence against Blum's psychoanalytic theory of subliminal perception. Occidental College. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 41 (3), pp 723-729.

G.S. Blum's interpretation of psychoanalytic theory leads him to predict that subjects will defend against a threatening stimulus which is just below a recognition threshold and be vigilant toward the same stimulus when it is farther below the same threshold.
In this study, Luther Jennings and Stephen George presented the subjects with the same 4 Blacky pictures, at the same speed and illumination, and using the same procedure as Blum.
The results obtained offer no support for the theory of perceptual vigilance or defense.
The authors discuss the weaknesses inherent in Blum's theory and the supporting methodology.
***

John, C. H. (1989). Subliminal perception and the cognitive processing of emotion, U Reading, England.

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Johnson, H. & Erikson, C.W. (1961). Preconscious prescription. A re-examination of the Poetzl phenomenon.

Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 62.

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Jones, B. & Sollner, R. (1982). Recognition memory for dichotically presented word pairs in right and left handed males. Cortex, 18 (3)

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Jus, A. & Jus, K. (1967). Neurophysiologic studies of the "unconscious" (thresholds of perception and elements of the "unconscious" in the production of conditioned reflexes. Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr, 67 (12), pp 1809-1815. ISSN: DY9Y-000, Language: RUSSIAN.

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Kaley, H.W. (1970). The effects of subliminal stimuli and drive on verbal responses and dreams. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 31 (4-B), p. 2284.

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Kamiya, S., H. Tajika, et al. (1994). "Effects of subliminal perception of words in explicit and implicit memory." Psychologia: an International Journal of Psychology in the Orient 37(2): 72-80.

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Kanthamani, H. and J. Palmer (1993). "A ganzfeld experiment with "subliminal sending."." Journal of Parapsychology 57(3): 241-257.

This study examined the effectiveness of "subliminal sending" on the ganzfield reception among pairs of subjects.

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Kao, Y.-f. (1991). Subliminal processing: The spread of activation in color priming, U Nevada, Reno, US.

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Kaplan, R.B. (1976). The symbiotic fantasy as a therapeutic agent: An experimental comparison of the effects of three symbiotic elements on manifest pathology in schizophrenics. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37 (3-B), pp 1437-1438.

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Kaplan, R., Thornton, P. & Silverman, L. (1985). Further data on the effects of subliminal symbiotic stimulation on schizophrenics. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 173 (11), pp 658-666. ISSN: 0022-3018.

Rosalind Kaplan, Patricia Thornton and Lloyd Silverman examined the effects of activating unconscious symbiotic fantasies in schizophrenic males.
The subjects were divided into four groups and assessed for pathological thinking, pathological non-verbal behavior and self-esteem before and after exposure to experimental and control subliminal stimuli.
The control stimulus for all groups was the message "People are walking".
Each group was divided into two, with one half of each group being exposed to verbal subliminal stimuli only and the other half to verbal plus congruent picture subliminal stimuli.
The experimental messages were;

a) "Mommy and I are one",

b) "Mommy is always with me",

c) "Mommy feeds me well", and

d) "I cannot hurt Mommy".

The "Mommy and I are one" message was the only one to produce adaptive behavior, and did so on all three dependent variables.
The results support the supposition that it is specifically symbiosis-related gratifications that are ameliorative for schizophrenics.

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Kaser, V.A. (1986). The effects of an auditory subliminal message upon the production of images and dreams. Atascadero State Hospital, Central Program Services, CA. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 174 (7), pp 397-407. ISSN: 0022-3018.

Vaughn Kaser conducted this study in order to investigate the effect that an auditory subliminal message, produced by speeding up the rate at which it was recorded, would have on the imagery and dreams of a group of normal subjects.
The auditory subliminal message was produced by speeding up a message that was sung until it could not be consciously understood.
This message was mixed with a normal music recording and played to the subjects in the experimental group.
The control group heard the normal music recording without the subliminal message.
Both groups were asked to produce a pretest drawing before the tapes were played, an imagery drawing immediately after the tapes were played, and a dream drawing of any dreams they might have that night.
A statistical analysis of blind ratings given to all the drawings by 2 art therapists indicated a significant difference between the dream drawings and the imagery drawings of the experimental and the control group.
When the drawings were examined, the effect of the subliminal message could be seen.
The results show that the auditory subliminal message did have an effect upon the imagery and dreams of the subjects in the experimental group.
The findings suggest that the unconscious/preconscious mind is able to perceive a recorded verbal message that cannot be consciously understood at the high rate of speed at which it was recorded.

***

Katz, R.J. (1973). Subliminal perception and the creative preconscious. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (4-B), p. 1751.
Robert Katz investigated the relationship between subliminal perception and the creativity of highly creative and emotionally constricted subjects.
The subjects were divided into highly creative and emotionally constricted groups on the basis of card VI, VIII and IX of the Rorschach test.
A subliminal slide of a "pink tree" was presented to the experimental groups, while the control group were exposed to a blank slide.
All three groups were then asked to create a story and to describe the physical environment in which their stories took place.
The responses were scored for the presence of literal reproductions of the subliminal stimulus and for responses conceptually related to the stimulus.
Two hypotheses were put forward;

1) the creative group would produce a significantly greater number of both literal reproductions of the subliminal stimulus and responses conceptually related to the stimulus, and

2) the increase in the degree of reality relatedness demanded by the structured condition would facilitate the production of literal reproductions in the creative group by reducing the degree to which the drive organization was involved in the formation of their creation.

The results clearly demonstrated that the creative group was superior to the constricted group in the ability to make use of preconscious material by incorporating either conceptually related responses or literal reproductions of the experimental stimulus into their subsequent productions.
The structured condition failed to facilitate the production of literal reproductions.

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Kaye, M.M. (1975). The therapeutic value of three merging stimuli for male schizophrenics. Yeshiva University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (3-B), pp 1438-1439.

Melvin Kaye examined the therapeutic value of the subliminal presentation of verbal messages, which were designed to arouse fantasies of merging oneself with another, on hospitalized schizophrenics.

***
Keithler, M.A. (1981). The influence of the transcendental meditation program and personality variables on auditory thresholds and cardio-respiratory responding. Doctoral Dissertation, Washington University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (04-B), p. 1662.

Mary Anne Keithler conducted this study in order to determine the influence of the transcendental meditation program and personality variables on auditory thresholds and cardio respiratory responding.
Many studies have shown that the Transcendental Meditation (TM) program improves perceptual ability, supposedly because regular practice of the TM technique improves the ability to concentrate and expands the level of conscious awareness.
Clements and Millstein (1977) found enhanced auditory thresholds (using a von Bekesy audiometer) in a small sample of female sidhas (practitioners of the TM Sidhi program) who had reported especially good experiences with the Sidhi technique for enhancing hearing ability.
The present study was designed to determine if a larger sample of Sidhas (ones not specially selected on the basis of their experiences) and a group of non-Sidha TM practitioners would show lower auditory thresholds than a group of non-TM practitioners.
The influence of response bias, personality, and central versus peripheral effects on auditory thresholds were addressed.
To assess motivational influences, cardiac and respiratory activity were measured and the effect of information processing requirements on physiological activity examined.
The subjects were divided into three groups (Sidhas, TM only and control).
Three auditory threshold tests were given, two to determine peripheral hearing ability, the method of limits (a bias-confounded measure), a forced choice absolute threshold test (a bias-free measure) to determine central discriminative ability.
For all tests, a one second 500 Hz tone was delivered binaurally through earphones.
Cardiac respiratory activity was measured during the tests and afterwards subjects were asked to fill out a personality questionnaire (the EPQ) and a rating scale concerning reactions to the session.
There was no significant differences found between groups for the two forced choice threshold tests.
The method of limits, however, showed that the Sidhas had significantly lower thresholds than the control subjects, implying a liberal response bias for the TM subjects and a conservative one for the control subjects. This may be related to greater familiarity with preconscious levels of the mind (where subliminal perception may take place) for the TM subjects.
This result suggests that the issue of response bias needs to be considered with specially selected Sidhas before Clements and Millstein's finding can be accepted.
Little relationship was found between personality variables and threshold measures, or between personality and TM.
The point of maximal cardia deceleration associated with the period of auditory stimulation within a trial was found to be logically related to the information processing demands of the tasks. This confirms the theory that cardiac acceleration (after a period of deceleration associated with the intake of sensory information) is associated with decision making and task completion.
Cardiac deceleration associated with auditory stimulation was not found to be greater at lower intensities, although respiratory reduction was.

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Kelly, J.S. (1979). Subliminal embeds in print advertising: A challenge to advertising ethics. Journal of Advertising, 8 (3), pp 20-24. ISSN: 0091-3367.

J. Steven Kelly discusses the use of subliminal embeds in advertising.
In spite of an increase in public awareness, due to various news media and consumer publications, the two books by Wilson Bryan Key and Vance Packard's Hidden Persuaders, a rebuttal from the advertising community regarding this activity has been nonexistent.
The implication behind the use of subliminal embeds in advertising is that such methods invade the consumers' subconscious and intrude on their purchase decision.
In a study of college students, it was found that subliminal embeds in advertisements did not produce significantly more recall of brands or illustrations than did regular ads.

***

Kemp-Wheeler, S.M. & Hill, A.B. (1987). Anxiety response to subliminal experience of mild stress. British Journal of Psychology, 78 (pt 3), pp 365-374.

Mild stress was induced by subliminal stimuli.

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Kemp-Wheeler, S. M. (1988). The effects of subliminal stimulation: Semantic priming and the arousal of anxiety, U Keele, England.

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Kemp-Wheeler, S. M. and A. B. Hill (1988). "Semantic priming without awareness: Some methodological considerations and replications." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A(Human Experimental Psychology. Vol 40): 671-692.

Semantic priming effects were obtained this study which presented verbal stimuli at below the objective detection threshold.

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Kemp-Wheeler, S. M. and A. B. Hill (1992). "Semantic and emotional priming below objective detection threshold." Cognition & Emotion 6(2): 113-128.

Significant semantic priming effects were found consistently while emotional priming effects were not obtained unless the target stimuli was preceded by an emotionally aversive prime.

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Kennedy, R.S. (1971). A comparison of performance on visual and auditory monitoring tasks. Human Factors, 13 (2), pp 93-97. ISSN: 0018-7208.

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Key, W.B. (1973). Subliminal Seduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Wilson Bryan Key describes how advertisers use visual subliminals to sell product.

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Key, W.B. (1976). Media Sexploitation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

Wilson Bryan Key discusses further ways in which the media users the consumers fantasies, fears and intimate habits in order to manipulate buying behavior.
***

Key, W.B. (1980). Clam Plate Orgy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wilson Bryan Key shows how advertisers use sex as the ultimate subliminal weapon to persuade the consumer to buy their products.

***

Kihlstrom, J.F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious. University of Arizona. Science, 237, pp 1445-1452.

John Kihlstrom discusses the unconscious, preconscious and subconscious.
Cognitive research in psychology reveals the impact of nonconscious mental structures and processes on the individual's conscious experience, thought and action.
Research on perceptual-cognitive and motoric skills indicates that they are automized through experience, and thus rendered unconscious.
In addition, research on subliminal perception, implicit memory and hypnosis indicates that events can affect mental functions even though they cannot be consciously perceived or remembered.
These findings suggest a tripartite division of the cognitive unconscious into truly unconscious mental processes operating on knowledge structures that may themselves be preconscious or subconscious.

***

Kihlstrom, J. F., T. M. Barnhardt, et al. (1992). Implicit perception. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 17-54.
(from the chapter) the quest for subliminal perception has no meaning unless the limen is defined in terms of what Cheesman and Merikle (1985) have called the subjective threshold: "the detection level where subjects claim not to be able to discriminate perceptual information at better than chance level" / reliance on the objective threshold, "the level of detectability where perceptual information is actually discriminated at chance level" ...effectively rules the phenomenon of subliminal perception out of existence / we (the authors) advocate abandoning the notion of "subliminal" perception entirely, and with it all of the unfortunate psychophysical implications of the concept of the limen / in its place we proffer the concept of implicit perception, based on an analogy with the phenomenon of implicit memory.

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Kilbourne, W.E., Painton, S. & Ridley, D. (1985). The effect of sexual embedding on responses to magazine advertisements. Sam Houston State University. Journal of Advertising, 14 (2), pp 48-55. ISSN: 0091-3367.

William Kilbourne, Scott Painton and Danny Ridley conducted two empirical studies to assess the effectiveness of sexual embedding in advertising.
In Study 1 the subjects viewed and evaluated 2 advertisements (ads) with embeds or 2 matched ads without embeds.
The results indicated that embedding was effective in raising attitudinal evaluations of a liquor ad but not a cigarette ad.
In Study 2, galvanic skin response (GSR) measurements were taken on the subjects while they viewed both versions (with and without embeds) of 2 ads.
The results indicated that embedding was effective in increasing GSR measurements for the versions of the ads with embeds.
The results of both studies suggest that the view of sexual embeds in magazine advertisements influences viewers' evaluation of the ads.

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Kim, J.-o., K. Rhee, et al. (1984). "Semantic information processing of Korean words." Korean Journal of Psychology 4(3): 185-200.

The authors of this study conclude that preconscious perception is independent of associative strengths between probe and prime words and therefore suggest support for Freud's hypothesis that multiple activations of associative pathways occur with related unidentified stimuli.

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Kimura, D. (1961). Cerebral dominance and the perception of verbal stimuli.

Canadian Journal of Psychology, 15.

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Kirkwood, B.J. (1987). Subliminal control of behavior: myth or miracle? Department of Psychology, University of Auckland. New Zealand Medical Journal, 100 (817), pp 69-70. ISSN: 0028-8446.

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Klaine, J. (1980, July). Subliminal world. Peterson's Photographic Magazine, 9 (8), p. 45.

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Klatz, R.M. (1986, July 18). Behavioral studies show subliminal tapes aid smokers, athletes.

Lake Forest News.

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Klatz, R.M. (1987, Spring). Subliminal and psychological training for maximum human performance. National Health and Medical Trends, pp 14-18.

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Kleespies, P. & Wiener, M. (1972). The "orienting reflex" as an input indicator in "subliminal" perception. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 35 (1), pp 103-110.

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Klein G.S. & Holt, R.R. (1960). Problems and issues in current studies of subliminal activation. In Festschrift for Gardner Murphy. Eds. J.G. Peatman and E.L. Hartley. New York: Harper and Rowe.

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Klein G.S., Spence, D.P. & Gourevitch, S. (1958). Cognition without awareness: Subliminal influences upon conscious thought. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 54, pp 167-176.

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Klein, S. & Moricz, E. (1969). A study of the effect of threshold stimuli. Magyar Pszichologiai Szemle, 26 (2), pp 198-206.

Sandor Klein and Eva Moricz found that a subliminal stimulus inserted into a 16-mm filmstrip was more frequently perceived by males than by females.

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Kleinbrook, W.L. (1985). Pastoral considerations regarding the use of subliminal psychodynamic activation. Drew University Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (8-A), p. 2555. ISSN: 0419-4209.

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Klinger, M. R. and A. G. Greenwald (1994). Preferences need no inferences?: The cognitive basis of unconscious mere exposure effects. The heart's eye: Emotional influences in perception and attention. S. K. Paula M. Niedenthal, Academic Press, Inc, San Diego, CA, US: 67-85.
(from the chapter) (in 1980, R. B. Zajonc postulated) that persons can have an emotional reaction to a stimulus without any corresponding cognitive reaction / Zajonc suggested that emotional responses may be produced by a system that is completely independent from cognitive processes / principal empirical support for Zajonc's thesis came from results of several experiments on the subliminal mere exposure effect / he interpreted the effect as evidence that affective responses can be elicited by stimuli that have been repeatedly encountered, but that are not consciously detectable /// review research on the mere exposure effect and subliminal mere exposure effect / consider the attempts to account for these findings in theory / present a program of research that has strong implications for an explanation of this effect / in so doing we point to limitations of past theories of mere exposure and extend them to account for our recent findings /// testing the memory-based models of subliminal mere exposure / tests of the memory attribution model.

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Klinger, M. R. and A. G. Greenwald (1995). "Unconscious priming of association judgments." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition 21(3): 569-581.

Evidience is presented that suggests that spreading activation is the important mechanism responsible for unconscious priming. Researchers obtained a statistically significant increase in the priming effect for subjects who could not detect the prime than for subjects who could partially detect the prime.

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Koizumi, K., Ishikawa, T. & Brooks, C.M. (1973). The existence of facilitatory axon collaterals in neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus. Brain Research, 63, pp 408-413. ISSN: 0006-8993.

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Kooyman, R. K. (1989). An investigation of the effect of music upon the academic, affective, and attendance profiles of selected fourth grade students, U Nevada, Las Vegas, US.

Kolers, P.A. (1972). Subliminal stimulation in simple and complex cognitive processes. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 33 (3-B), p. 1269.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1967). The effect of changes in the functional state of the cortex and activating systems of the brain stem on detection of weak auditory signals. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat, 17 (4), pp 634-642. ISSN: DYAS-0000. Language: RUSSIAN.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1968). The effect of unrecognized emotional verbal stimuli. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat., 18 (3), pp 371-380. ISSN: DYAS-0000. Language: RUSSIAN.
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Kostandov, E.A. (1969). The effect of emotional excitation on auditory threshold and subliminal reactions. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat., 19 (3), pp 462-70. ISSN: DYAS-0000. Language: RUSSIAN.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1970). Perception and subliminal reactions to unrecognized stimuli. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat., 20 (2), pp 441-449. ISSN: DYAS-0000. Language: RUSSIAN.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1971). Evoked potentials of the human cerebral cortex to recognized and unrecognized auditory signals. Neirofiziologiia, 3 (2), pp 115-22. Language: RUSSIAN.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1973). The effect of negative emotions on perception. Central Scientific Research Inst. of Legal Psychiatry, Moscow, USSR. Voprosy Psikhologii, 19 (6), pp 60-72. Language: RUSSIAN.

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of emotional content of words on their recognition thresholds.
The subjects were all mentally disturbed because of severe conflicts experienced in the life situation.
Neutral and emotional words were presented to subjects while their EEG and GSR were recorded.
The emotional words used were pertinent to subject's particular conflict.
The experiment was run under 3 conditions: before, during and after the injection of anticholingeric agent.
The results, as recorded by the GSR and EEG, showed that there was a higher verbal recognition thresholds for the emotional words, along with subliminal recognition.
The emotional words produced an increase in amplitude and a decrease in the latency in the late positive component of CEP from the occipital region of the brain.It is conjectured that this was caused by nonspecific afferent signals from the limbic system.
The possible mechanism whereby the limbic system may change recognition thresholds of emotional words is discussed.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1977). Cortical evoked potentials to emotional words (supraliminal and subliminal). Serbsky Central Research Inst. of Forensic Psychiatry, Moscow, USSR. Activitas Nervosa Superior, 19 (4), pp 301-302. ISSN: 0001-7604.

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Kostandov, E.A. (1985). Currents significance of the work of G.C. Gershuni on subsensory reactions. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat., 36 (6), pp 1014-1021. ISSN: 0044-4677.

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Kostandov, E.A. & Arzumanov, YuL. (1978). Conditioned reflex mechanism of unconscious decision making. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat, 28 (3), pp 542-548.

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Kostandov, E.A. & Arzumanov, Y. L. (1986). The influence of subliminal emotional words on functional hemispheric asymmetry. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 4 (2), pp 143 147.

The aim of this study was to examine the interhemispheric differences in the process of perception of subliminal verbal stimuli, by recording the P300 component of the evoked potential over both hemispheres.
Neutral and emotional words were presented subliminally, at random, to the left or right visual fields.
The results showed that, in response to an unrecognized emotional word, the amplitude of P300 wave increased diffusely over both hemispheres as compared to that of the neutral word, with no change in interhemispheric differences.
The interhemispheric difference did change considerably in the presence of an "unaccountable" emotion caused by a subliminal word. This suggests a unilateral activation of the right hemisphere and a predominant role of this hemisphere in the cortical organization of the unconscious function "unaccountable" emotion.

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Kostandov, E. A. and Y. L. Arzumanov (1988). "Physiological mechanisms of "unaccountable" negative emotions. 2nd European International Association for Interdisciplinary Study of Higher Nervous Functions Conference (1987, Magdeburg, German Democratic Republic)." Activitas Nervosa Superior 30(3): 186-187.

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Kostandov, E., Arzumanov, J., Vazhnova, T., Reshchikova, T. & Shostakovich, G. (1980). Conditional mechanisms of decision making. Pavlovs Journal of Biological Science, 15 (4), pp 142-150.

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Kostandov, E.A. & D'iachkoya, G.I. (1971). Evoked potentials of the human cerebral cortex to recognized and unrecognized auditory signals. Neirofiziologiia (USSR), 3 (2), pp 115-122. ISSN: 0028-2561.

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Kothera, L. M. (1990). A reinvestigation of the subliminal psychodynamic activation dart throwing paradigm: The role of information processing, Long Island U, Brooklyn Ctr, NY, US.

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Kothera, L., R. Fudin, et al. (1990). "Effects of subliminal psychodynamic activation on dart throwing performance: Another nonreplication." Perceptual & Motor Skills 71(3, Pt 1): 1015 1022.

Subliminal psychodynamic activation messages failed to improve dart throwing ability in this study.

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Kotze, H. F. and A. T. Moller (1990). "Effect of auditory subliminal stimulation on GSR." Psychological Reports 67(3, Pt 1): 931-934.

This study showed that auditory subliminal stimuli could effect a significant increase in GSR. 38 undergraduates were exposed subliminally to emotional words while their galvanic skin response (GSR) was monitored. Emotional words such as abortion, syphilis and murder were used.

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Kotze, H. F. and A. T. Moller (1991). "Subliminal stimulation, choice behavior and some personality correlates of subliminal sensitivity." Perceptual & Motor Skills 72(1): 315-322.

This study investigated aspects of choice behavior. Results failed to show a positive correlation between symbol choice and neutral message. The researchers suggest that the symbol choice may have itself been neutral since it was not need or motivation oriented.

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Koufopoulos, R.M. (1987). A study of introjective depression using the subliminal psychodynamic activation method. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (3-B), p. 880.

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Koulack, D. & Goodenough, D.R. (1976). Dream recall and dream recall failure. An arousal retrieval model. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. Psychological Bulletin, 83 (5), pp 975-984.

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Koulack, D. & Goodenough, D.R. (1977). A model for dream-recall on wakening: A proposal to account for memory faults in the recall of dreams. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. Annales Medica-Psychologiques, 1 (1), pp 35-42. ISSN: 00034487. Language: FRENCH.

In this article David Koulack and Donald Goodenough propose an arousal/retrieval model to account for difficulties in sleep learning and dream recall.
The model is based on two-stage memory theory, which assumes that information processing in a short-term memory state facilities subsequent retrieval from long-term memory storage.
The authors propose that the effectiveness of processing of target materials is impaired during sleep.
Dreams and information contained in stimulus presentations to a sleeping person very likely can only be retrieved if an awakening occurs during the life of the short term memory trance.
The authors further propose that experiences occurring during or shortly after awakening compete with the target material for space in the limited-capacity processing system, with the most salient of the set favored in the competition.
Interference and repression effects are assumed as additional factors in retrieval from long term storage.

***

Kramer, J. (1986). Psychic Guide. In Subliminal Persuasion, Becoming All You Can Be, pp. 33-36.

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Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1973). Subliminal Perception and extrasensory perception. Tel Aviv University, Israel. Journal of Parapsychology, 37 (3), pp 163-188.

Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler conducted this study in order to investigate;

a) which conditions facilitate ESP, eg.

i) absence of other stimuli,

ii) presence of weak stimuli conveying the same information as ESP, or

iii) the presence of weak stimuli contradicting ESP, and

b) the effectiveness of ESP when the sender is merely thinking about the target he is trying to "send" or is actively trying to transmit it.

The results indicated that ESP messages are most effective when they contradicted information conveyed by subliminal stimuli and were communicated by a transmitting sender.

***

Kreitler, H. & Kreitler, S. (1974). Optimization of experimental ESP results. Harvard University, Carpenter Center. Journal of Parapsychology, 38 (4), pp 383-392.
In this article, Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler stated that the comparative analysis of 4 ESP experiments showed that ESP enhanced neither supraliminal or subliminal inputs, nor did it strengthen a subject's dominant response tendencies.
ESP effects were most manifest when the contents of the ESP message differed from that of concomitant external and internal stimuli.
From the results, it was concluded that the external and internal stimuli constitute the noise background against which the ESP signal has to be detected.
The authors suggest that, in order to strengthen the detectability of ESP signals and thus increase the possibility of successful ESP experimentation, there should also be experimental control of response bias and guessing habits, in addition to the already traditional reduction of external stimulation in ESP experiments.
In particular messages should be selected which differ considerably in their contents from the contents of whatever external and internal stimuli may be occurring at the same time.

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Krishna, S.R. (1985). A review of the PA India conference. Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India. Journal of Parapsychology, 49 (3), pp 249-255. ISSN: 0022-3387.

In this article, Shanti Krishna discusses research in parapsychology, including Western and Eastern psi perspectives.
Included in the discussion is ESP and subliminal perception.

***

Krosnick, J. A., A. L. Betz, et al. (1992). "Subliminal conditioning of attitudes." Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 18(2): 152-162.

Two studies involving 162 undergraduate students demonstrated subliminal conditioning of attitudes without awareness of antecedents. Subliminal photographs affected attitudes and beliefs about personality characteristics of the target person.

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Kruse, P. Some suggestions about suggestion and hypnosis: a radical constructivist view. In Suggestion and Suggestibility, Theory and Research by Gheorghiu, V.A., Netter, P., Eysenck, H.J. & Rosenthal (Eds). Springer Verlag, Berlin.

Peter Kruse makes the case of the under-researched and often ignored power of suggestive influences in all forms of communication and every day experience.
Kruse applies the reality criteria and offers epistomological consideration for the value of suggestion in research, theory and therapy.

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Kruse, P. & Stadler, M. (1990). Stability and instability in cognitive systems: multistability, suggestion, and psychomotor interaction. Department of Psychology, University of Bremen. Springer Series in Synergetics, 45, pp 201-215.

The focus of this paper is on approaching brain/mind in the interaction between stability/instability associating mental events with neural events.
The authors summarize presented facts and ideas applying a self-organization theory to cognitive phenomena in two main areas;

1) cognitive instability, and

2) instability in cognitive systems.

***

Kruse, P., Stadler, M., & Kobs, M. Suggestion and perceptual instability: auditory subliminal influences, a pilot study (1991). Department of Psychology, University of Bremen.

In this study the researchers demonstrated the influence of a subliminal stimuli delivered via an audio subliminal tape prepared using what Kruse dubbed the "Taylor Method" on the instability on perception. This method employs the simultaneous delivery of forward and reverse spoken affirmations. The forward messages are permissive, such as, "It's okay to be good," and the reverse message, supposedly directed at the right hemisphere, "I am good."

***

Kunzendorf, R.G., Lacourse, P. & Lynch, B. (1986-1987). Hypnotic hypermnesia for subliminally encoded stimuli: state dependent memory for "unmonitored" sensations. Imagination, Cognition & Personality, 6 (4), pp 365-377.

This study examined the encoding of subliminal and hypnotic perceptions. Two experiments involving 145 undergraduates demonstrated that subliminal information processing was enhanced by the hypnotic state.
***

Kunzendorf, R. G. and L. Montisanti (1989). "Subliminal activation of hypnotic responses: Subconscious realms of mind versus subconscious modes of mentation." Imagination, Cognition & Personality 9(2): 103-114.

This study found that deeply hypnotized subjects were able to recognize subliminal stimuli.

***

Kunzendorf, R. G., M. Jesses, et al. (1990). "Subliminal activation of intrapsychic conflicts: Subconscious realms of mind vs subconscious processes of mentation." Imagination, Cognition & Personality 10(2): 117-128.

80 male university students heard the message, "It's wrong to crush daddy," both stereophonically and binaurally. The stereophonic listening procedure interrupted mathematical problem solving while the binaural procedure did not.

***

Kunzendorf, R. G. and W. Butler (1992). "Apperception revisited: "Subliminal" monocular perception during the apperception of fused random-dot stereograms." Consciousness & Cognition: an International Journal 1(1): 63-76.

This study confirmed Kunzendorf's redefinition of binocular apperception and source monitoring theory.

***

Kwawer, J.S. (1972). An experimental study of psychoanalytic theories of overt male homosexuality. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 32 (10-B), p. 6053.

Jay Solomon Kwawer designed this study in order to provide an experimental evaluation of two aspects of the psychoanalytic theory of overt male homosexuality;

a) that homosexual symptoms are related to oedipal fantasies, and

b) homosexuality is related to a wish for a symbiotic attachment to mother.

The subjects were shown a tachistopic presentation of verbal and pictorial stimuli at a subliminal level.
The three conditions used were;

i) a subliminal stimulus designed to trigger incestuous fantasies about mother,

ii) a subliminal stimulus designed to trigger a fantasy of symbiotic attachment to mother.

iii) a neutral control stimulus.

The dependent variables were designed to assess changes in homosexual manifestations as a function of subliminal presentation of the experimental stimuli.
A difference which could be significant was found for the incest condition on a measure directly tapping the degree of homosexual attraction to other men.
At the level of intensity and exposure used, the subjects were unable to discriminate between stimuli on a better than chance basis.

***

Kwawer, J.S. (1977). Male homosexual psychodynamics and the Rorschach test. Journal for Personal Assessment, 41 (1), pp 10-18. ISSN: 0022-3891.

Jay Soloman Kwawer discusses the contradictory findings regarding Wheeler's Rorschach content signs of male homosexuality.
It is suggested that the negative findings may have resulted from a focus on homosexual populations characterized by minimal arousal of underlying unconscious conflicts.
A hypothesis was put forward, which stated that activating these unconscious psychodynamics would enhance the discriminative power of the Wheeler signs.
An earlier study was reviewed where Inkblot protocols obtained from matched groups of homosexuals and heterosexuals under two experimental conditions involving subliminal exposure of either;

1) an incest-related, or

2) a neutral control stimulus

were scored for Wheeler signs.
It was found that the incest condition brought about a significantly greater incidence of the signs in homosexual records only. This suggests that the intensification of unconscious incest wishes stimulates homosexual reactions, consonant with psychoanalytic formulation.

***

Lander, E. (1981, February). In through the out door. Omni, 3 (6), p. 44.

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Landis, T., L. Christen, et al. (1992). "Dissociated hemispheric and stimulus effects upon affective choice and recognition." International Journal of Neuroscience 62(1-2): 81-87.

Two major effects were observed in this study which subliminally presented hemisphere specific dissociations to 72 men between the ages of 20 and 30 years old. Researchers concluded that reciprocal inhibition may underlie the reason between the types of judgements. The inhibition effect was stronger for the right than for the left visual filed.

***

Langerholc, J. (1984). "What is the Mona Lisa really smiling about?" Rivista di Psicologia dell'Arte 6(10-11): 5-22

Criticizes Freudians for interpreting the many subliminal male faces in the Mona Lisa as an automatic unconscious attribute of the artist's mind.

***

Lasaga, J.I. & Lasaga, A.M. (1973). Sleep learning and progressive blurring of perception during sleep. Crownsville State Hospital, MD. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 37 (1), pp 51-62. ISSN: 0031-5125.

Jose and Agueda Lasaga presented verbal stimuli (numbers) to the subjects during different stages of sleep.
Fifteen seconds after each presentation the subjects were awakened and asked if they had heard anything. If not, they were given a multiple-choice test that included the stimulus number and three other numbers.
The results show that;

a) even during Stages 3 and 4 some perception of verbal stimuli is possible during sleep.

b) there is a progressive burring of perception from State 1 and REM to Stages 3 and 4, and;

c) some forms of learning are possible during sleep deeper than the drowsy state, but perceptual distortions make the assimilation of complex verbal materials unlikely.

It was also noticed that most verbal stimulations tended to produce a lightening of sleep as measured by the EEG.
Based on the response of some of the subjects, there is a possibility of subliminal perception during sleep.

***

Lasser, E. S. (1977). "Ethical considerations in pathology-intensifying research." American Psychologist 32(7): 577-578.

Objects to Lloyd Silverman's work on the basis that he failed to obtain informed consent from the subjects. Silverman's response is also included.

***

Lazarus, R.S. & McCleary, R.A. (1951). Automatic discrimination without awareness: A study of subception. Psychological Review, 58, pp 113-122.

***

Leclerc, C. & Freibergs, V. (1971). The influence of perceptual and symbolic subliminal stimuli on concept formation. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 25 (4), pp 292-301. Language: FRENCH.

Claude Leclerc and Vaira Freibergs examined the influence of perceptual and symbolic subliminal stimuli on concept formation.
The concept to be learned was represented by geometric figures.
Before each concept was put forward, the subjects were presented with a backward masked subliminal stimulus. The stimulus indicated either the correct or incorrect solution.
The results show that only the symbolic subliminal stimuli were effective in influencing the learning of a concept, and this particularly in the case where the correct solution was indicated.
It was concluded that the effect of a subliminal stimulus depends on the degree of correspondence between the level of complexity of the stimulus and that of the task.

***

Ledford, B.R. (1978, August). The effects of thematic content of rheostatically controlled visual subliminals upon the receiving level of the affective domain of learners. Commerce, Texas: East Texas State University, Center for Educational Media and Technology.

Bruce Ledford conducted this study in order to determine the effects of rheostatically controlled visual subliminals on the affective interrelations of a learning task of subjects within a classroom setting.
The subjects were divided into four groups, and were unknowingly exposed to a rheostatically projected subliminal message for 30 minutes during otherwise normal classroom procedures.
The subjects were then asked to complete a questionnaire revealing their consciousness of, willingness to learn about, and desire to elicit selective attention to faces shown on six slides, one being the subliminally presented task.
Of the stimuli content tested, a drive related sex stimulus was the most significant in affective influence.

***

Ledford, B.R. & Ledford, S.Y. (1985). The effects of preconscious cues upon the automatic activation of self-esteem selected middle school students. Requirement for Project 1246. Tucson Unified School District.

Bruce and Suzanne Ledford performed this study in order to investigate whether self esteem could be affected by the presentation of a subliminal stimulus through the medium of a specially prepared paper.
The study also examined whether or not there is any statistical difference between the effects on self-esteem of a subliminal stimulus on under- (Target Learners) and average- achieving (Mainstream Learners) students.
All groups were given the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). The experimental group's test was printed on paper that contained the subliminal visual image "I love you" and the symbol of a Valentine heart.
The control group's test was administered on untreated paper.
The results showed that;

a) both Mainstream and Target experimental groups showed enhancement of self esteem, and

b) subjects who were identified as under-achievers and who had problems in socialization appeared to benefit slightly more from the techniques than did Mainstream subjects.

***

Ledford, B. R., L. Robison, et al. (1987). "The effects of preconscious visual symbolic and linguistic cues upon the academic achievement of college students." Imagination, Cognition & Personality 7(3): 251-264.

Tested the effects of preconscious visual clues on academic performance. Results found significance only for males in the study.

***

Lee, I. & Tyrer, P. (1980). Response of chronic agoraphobics to subliminal and supraliminal phobic motion pictures. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 168 (1), pp 34-40. ISSN: 0022-3018.

This study was performed in order to investigate the responses of agoraphobics to repeated presentations of a phobic motion picture.
The subjects were divided into three groups;
a) group 1 were shown the film supraliminally,

b) group 2 were shown the film subliminally, and

c) group 3 formed the control group.

Subjective feelings were assessed with visual analogue scales, and three physiological measures, heart rate, skin conductance, and respiratory rate, were recorded.
A previous study had shown that both subliminal and supraliminal presentations produced significant improvements in phobic fear and avoidance.
This study found that the subliminal group found the procedure much less stressful than the subliminal group.
There was no consistent pattern in the physiological changes during the experiment, and the changes appeared to be independent of clinical response.
The results showed that repeated exposure to subliminal phobic motion pictures is not anxiety provoking to agoraphobic patients and so may be appropriate therapy for those unable to tolerate other forms of treatment.

***

Lee, I. & Tyrer, P. (1981). Self report and physiological response to subliminal and supraliminal motion pictures. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 169 (5), p. 294.

***

Lee, I & Tyrer, P. & Horn, S. (1983). A comparison of subliminal, supraliminal and faded phobic cine-films in the treatment of agoraphobia. Electronic Facilities Design LTD, Reading, England. British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, pp 356-361. ISSN: 0007-1250.

Ian Lee, Peter Tyrer and Sandra Horn studied four groups of agoraphobics, who were treated by repeated exposure to films at twice weekly intervals for 3 weeks.
Three of the groups saw the same film, comprising a range of agoraphobic scenes, and a control group saw a potter working on his wheel.
The experimental groups saw the phobic film;

1) at an illumination level below the visual threshold (subliminal group),

2) under normal conditions (supraliminal group), and

3) through a graduated exposure from subliminal to supraliminal viewing levels as the study proceeded (faded group).

The results showed that the faded group gave significantly greater improvement than the control and supraliminal groups, and this improvement was maintained over 12 weeks.

***

Leiter, E. (1974). A study of the effects of subliminal activation of merging fantasies in the differentiated and non-differentiated schizophrenics. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (8-B), pp 4022-4023.

***

Leiter, E. (1982). The effects of subliminal activation of aggressive and merging fantasies in differentiated and non-differentiated schizophrenics. The Bronx Psychiatric Center, New York, NY. Lund University. Psychological Research Bulletin, 22 (7), 21 pages. ISSN: 0348-3673.

Eli Leiter carried out this study in order to determine the effects of the subliminal activation of aggressive and merging fantasies in differentiated and non-differentiated schizophrenics.
The subjects were assessed on several measures of differentiation and were then exposed to 3 conditions in a subliminal psychodynamic activation experiment.
The conditions were designed to;

1) activate aggressive fantasies,

2) activate symbiotic fantasies, and

3) act as a neutral control condition.

The results showed that the aggressive condition intensified pathology, whereas the symbiotic condition reduced pathology for the more-differentiated schizophrenics but increased it for the less-differentiated subjects.
The Adjective Rating Scale, a measure of sense of separateness, was used to obtain the criterion score for degree of differentiation.
Other more-general measures of differentiation from the rod-and-frame test, Embedded Figures Test, Rorschach and the Figure Drawing Test did not predict performance after the symbiotic condition.

***

Lehmann, A.G. & Busnel, R.G. (1979). Reduction of swimming time in mice through interaction of infrasound and alcohol. Lab de Physiologie Acoustique, Jouy-en-Josas, France. Psychopharmacology, 65 (1), pp 79-84. ISSN: 0033-3158.

Lehmann and Busnel studied the effects of noise, alcohol and the combination of the two on muscular fatigue during swimming in Swiss albino RB-3 GFF +/+ and the GFF dn/dn mice. The aim of the experiment was to investigate a possible interaction between the two stresses.
Muscular fatigue was measured by latency to submersion during a forced-swimming test.
The subjects were exposed to acoustic stimuli of fixed frequency and intensity for two hours preceding the test.
Ethanol was administered orally for 30 minutes to 3.5 hours prior to testing.
The alcohol doses and sound intensities were subliminal when administered separately.
While no significant interaction occurred between alcohol and audible sound, the interaction between alcohol and infrasound was highly significant, indicating that their joint effects were more than merely additive.
The blood alcohol measurements indicated that these interactive effects were prolonged for more than two hours after elimination of alcohol from the blood.
The effects are similar in genetically deaf and hearing mice, which implicates the involvement of nonauditory pathways.

***

Lempel, C. S. (1992). The effect of subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies on the treatment of polysubstance abusers, Long Island U, Brooklyn Ctr, NY, US.

***

Lenz, S. (1989). The effects of subliminal auditory stimuli on academic learning and motor skills performance among police recruits. California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles, CA. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.

Suzanne Lenz performed this study in order to explore the effects of subliminal auditory tapes in a structured learning setting, focusing on both motor and verbal learning.
The subjects were divided into three groups;

a) group one listened to music tapes with embedded subliminal messages relating to learning law and enhancing marksmanship,

b) group 2 listened to music tapes without subliminal messages, and

c) group three underwent no treatment.

The experimental groups were exposed to the music tapes during a regular class on law instruction.
All the subjects were given both pre- and post-tests in law and marksmanship.
The results showed that neither music alone nor music with subliminal messages played during law instruction affected the cognitive (i.e., law) learning of the recruits, or improved motor skills (i.e., marksmanship) performance.
Although this study was well structured in terms of design and protocol, and the results were accurately reported, a major flaw can be found in the technical design of the tapes. The subliminal messages were recorded at 40-50 db below the sound of the music, and as such are too low to be perceived.

***
Lenz, S. (1990). The effect of subliminal auditory stimuli on academic learning and motor skills performance among police recruits, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles, US.

***

Leuschner, W., S. Hau, et al. (1994). "Disassociation and reassociation of subliminally induced stimulus material in drawings of dreams and drawings of waking free imagery." Dreaming: Journal of the Association for the Study of Dreams 4(1): 1-27.

The cocnlusion of this study suggests that the visual processing of subliminal stimuli can be explained via a dissociation-reassociation hypothesis.

***

Levenson, R.W. (1983). Personality research and psychophysiology: General considerations. Indiana University, Bloomington. Journal of Research in Personality, 17 (1), pp 1-21. ISSN: 0092-6566.

Robert Levenson presents a general discussion of psychophysiological methods in relationship to personality research for the investigator without an extensive knowledge of psychophysiology.
Included in this article is a section on the advantages inherent in the use of psychophysiological measures (e.g., continuous measurement, sensitivity to subliminal responses).

***

Levy, M.A. (1985). The intimacy motive: A variable to predict responsiveness to subliminal symbiotic stimulation. Adelphi University, Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (7-B), p. 2314. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Previous studies have shown that the presentation of subliminal symbiotic messages, via the "subliminal psychodynamic activation" method developed by Silverman (1982), can have a beneficial impact on various aspects of human functioning and a wide range of behaviors.
The aim of this study was to determine whether the personality characteristic, intimacy motivation, could predict responsiveness to subliminal symbiotic stimuli.
Two unrelated dependent variables were used;

1) a time estimation task, where an overestimation of the duration of a tone (50 seconds) was predicted for the experimental subjects, who were presented with the symbiotic message, "Mommy and I are one", while no overestimation was predicted for the control group, who were shown the neutral message, "People are walking".

2) a state-anxiety measure, where it was hypothesized that the experimental subjects would demonstrate lower levels of anxiety than the control subjects.

It was predicted from an exploratory hypothesis that experimental subjects who had high intimacy motivation scores would be the most responsive to the symbiotic stimuli.
The results failed to support all three hypotheses, which suggests the possibility that no subliminal effects occurred whatsoever in the experiment.

***

Levy, S. (1984). The selling of the subliminal. Popular Computing, 3 (6), pp 70,75-78.

Steven Levy describes ExpandoVision, a computer controlled television device that flashes subliminal self-help messages on the television screen during routine viewing of regular programs.
The effectiveness and dangers of subliminal persuasion are discussed.

***

Lewis, A.J., Parker, J., DiLuigi, J., Datko, L.J. & Carlson, R.P. (1981-1982). Immunomodulation of delayed hypersensitivity to methylated bovine serum (MBSA) in mice using subliminal and normal sensitization procedures. Journal of Immunopharmacology, 3 (3-4), pp 289-307.

***

Lieberman, H.J. (1975). A study of the relationship between developmentally determined personality and associated thought styles and tachistoscopic exposure as reflected in conflict resolution. Pennsylvania State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35 (11-B), pp 5670-5671.

Previous research suggests that variations in stimulus visibility (from supraliminal to subliminal) parallels, in psychoanalytic terms, a conscious to unconscious continuum, and a developmental hierarchy of different personality and thought styles.
Three visibility levels were chosen for this study; supraliminal, perceptual defense (recognition threshold and subliminal.
The response to each development stage were investigated by studying how passive aggressive conflicts were handled at different exposure levels.
Neutral, passive and aggressive words were used.
Personality adaptation was based on the ratio of passive and aggressive content scores on the Holtzman Inkblot technique.
The results indicate that passive-aggressive orientation helped determine how subjects perceived stimuli at all exposure levels.
Subliminal stimulus type influenced the direction of responses without distorting the personality adaptation and defense style modes of response.
When subliminal stimulation was presented before supraliminal stimuli, subliminal stimulation effects were potent enough to alter and disorganize personality adaptation and defensive style responses.
It was concluded that response processes varied with stimulus visibility.
The fact that subliminal stimulation before supraliminal exposure was more effective than subliminal stimulation after supraliminal exposure in activating and effecting response processes was attributed to the former being interpreted as more internal in origin, less controllable and therefore more-anxiety inducing than the latter.

***

Lindeman, M. L. (1985). "Suggestion in education: The historical path of suggestopedia." Journal of Evolutionary Psychology 6(1-2): 107-118.

This article suggests that all forms of education include suggestion of some kind. Further, suggestion and suggestability are important roles in education.

***

Linehan, E.J. (1980). The effect of subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies on college student self-disclosure in group counseling. St. John's University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (01-A), p. 108.

***

Linehan, E.J. & O'Toole, J. (1982). Effect of subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies on college student self-disclosure in group counseling. St. Clare's Hospital Community Mental Health Center, Industrial Employee Assistance Program, Denville, NJ. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29 (2), pp 151-157. ISSN: 0022-0167.

Edward Linehan and James O'Toole studied subliminal symbiotic stimulation as a treatment aid in conjunction with counselor self-disclosures in group counseling.
The subjects were divided into three groups, with each group being further subdivided in an experimental and a control group.
Before each group counselling session, the experimentals received the subliminal message, "Mommy and I are one," and the controls received the neutral message, "People are walking."
In the counseling session that followed;

a) group 1 were exposed to 8 counselor self-disclosures (CSDs),

b) group 2 received 4 CSDs, and

c) group 3 received zero CSDs.

The results showed that the experimental "Mommy" message produced more subject self disclosures (SSDs) than the neutral message.
These results with the "Mommy" stimulus, together with previous findings, indicate that the subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies can enhance the effectiveness of therapeutic procedures of various kinds.

***
Lipkins, R. H. (1988). An experimental study of the effects of symbiotic gratification fantasy, separation anxiety, and castration anxiety on attitudes toward the physically disabled and state anxiety, New York U, US.

***

Litwack, T.R., Wiedemann, C.F. & Yager, J. (1979). The fear of object loss, responsiveness to subliminal stimuli, and schizophrenic psychopathology. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 167 (2), pp 79-90. ISSN: 0022-3018.
Thomas Litwack, Carl Wiedemann and Joan Yager examined the effects of object loss and responsiveness to subliminal stimuli on schizophrenic psychopathology.
The subjects were seen individually for 3 sessions in a balanced design.
In each session, following subliminal stimulation with a neutral stimulus, a baseline assessment of pathology was made.
In different sessions in counterbalanced order, each patient received 2 of 3 experimental (or "critical") stimuli;

(a) a neutral control stimulus,

(b) a message ("cannibal eats person") intended to activate aggressive ideation, and

Each of these conditions was followed by an initial and later assessment of pathology, and finally by a measure of the patients' sense of differentiation from a mothering figure.
The results showed that;

a) the subliminal aggressive message intensified pathology and aggressive ideation, especially for relatively undifferentiated and relatively non-defended patients'

b) the subliminal stimulation of fantasies of objects loss also increased pathology, especially for non-defended patients , and also increased the patients sense of merging with mothering object, and

c) the patients' response to subliminal stimuli, including presumably neutral ones, was a function of the conscious meaning (s) of such stimuli.

It was concluded that;

1) the threat of object loss (real or fantasied) may be one of the motivations supporting the development of pathology in schizophrenics,

2) the activation of fantasies of aggressive destruction can exacerbate schizophrenic pathology, perhaps by activating fantasies of object loss, and

3) future research with subliminal stimulation should consider carefully the differential responsiveness of subjects to the content of particular messages.

***

Locke, E. L. (1991). "The Vance decision: The future of subliminal communication." Law & Psychology Review 15: 375-394.

The process by which subliminal information affects behavior is outlined in this article about the Vance vs. Judas Priest case.

***

Lodl, C.M. (1981). The effects of subliminal stimuli of aggressive content upon the analytic/field independent cognitive style. Marquette University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (9 B), pp 3559-3560.

***

Lomangino, L.F. (1969). Depiction of subliminally and supraliminally presented aggressive stimuli and its effects on the cognitive functioning of schizophrenics. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30 (4-B), pp 1900-1901.

***

Lombard, J. (1979). Advertising. Elements: Translating theory into practice, 11 (1), pp 406.

Jim Lombard presents example of subliminal or indirect advertising in the mass media.
It is suggested that advertising analysis be part of the elementary curriculum so that children can become sensitized to such nonverbal influence on their behavior.

***

Lorenzo, G.J. (1985). Subliminal stimulation and psychopathologic diagnosis. University Autonoma de Madrid, Facultad de Psicologia, Spain. Psiquis Revista de Psiquiatria, Psicologia y Psicosomatica, 6 (1), pp 30-40. ISSN: 0210-8348. Language: SPANISH.

In this article, Jose Gonzalez Lorenzo contends, on the basis of data from several investigations, that external stimuli not in the subject's awareness may cause a response of overt behavior, disorders of thinking, affective orders, or other abnormalities.
It is suggested that unconscious psychopathology may be activated by a wide range of stimuli that are relevant to the diagnosis and therapy of the mentally ill.

***

Lorenzo, G.J. (1985). Influence of subliminal stimulation on perception. Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada, 40 (5), pp 1019-1031.

This study evaluated three verbal stimuli related to profession. Statistical findings suggest that the subjects responses were determined by the subliminal information they received.

***

Lozanov, G. (1971) Suggestology. Sophia: Nauki Izkustvi

***

Lozanov, G. (1978). Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedia. New York: Gordon and Breach.

Georgi Lozanov discusses how he used subliminal audio messages to enhance learning abilities in language and mathematics.

***

Lynn, R.L. (1987). Relaxation: low intensity (subliminal) phrases versus instructional set. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (3-B), p. 882.

***

Magri, M. (1979). Effects of sexual guilt upon affective responses to subliminal sexual stimuli. College of William and Mary. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (2-B), p. 926.

Michael Magri designed this study in order to investigate the effects of sexual guilt on the physiological and affective responses to the subliminal presentation of sexual words.
The subjects were given the Morsher Forced-Choice Guilt Inventory, and on the basis of the results, the top 27 % were assigned to the high sexual guilt group and the bottom 27% were assigned to the low sexual guilt group.
The subjects in these two groups were then randomly assigned to either subliminal sexual stimuli (treatment) condition, or the subliminal neutral (control) stimuli condition.
Both experimental condition entailed the presentation of ten subliminal words. In the treatment condition six words were neutral and four sexual in content. In the control condition all ten words were neutral.
The results showed no significant differences between the treatment and the control groups, but low sexual guilt subjects reported significantly higher levels of affective arousal than did high sexual guilt subjects.

***

Majdi, M. (1983). An audio system for producing a subliminal message. University of Louisville. Masters Abstracts, 22 (01), p.
28.

***

Maloney, J.C. (1983). Some psychoanalytic aspects of coronary prone behavior. Adelphi University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (7-B), p. 2346. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Jeffrey Maloney designed this study to test the effects of tachistopically stimulating unconscious-compulsive fantasy on some correlates of coronary-prone behavior.
The stimulus, derived from Freud's theory that the obsessive-compulsive personality is organized around infantile defenses used to cope with the fantasies, drives, impulses and feelings associated with defecation, was the word and picture message "Shitting is OK".
This message follows the line of research in subliminal psychodynamic activation, which has shown that some "sanctioning" messages can reduce pathology and enhance adaptation.
It was hypothesized that the coronary-prone subjects have obsessive-compulsive personalities, and as such the stimulation of an anal fantasy with a sanctioning message would reduce aspects of their behavior pattern.
Changes in affective hostility, impatience, the need to achieve and the hostility in fantasy were measured following the presentation of critical and neutral stimuli.
No significant change was found in either between or within-subject scores.
The lack of findings suggest that the coronary prone subjects may not have obsessive compulsive personalities, or that the message derived from the theory was not one which stimulated the fantasy in an effective way.

***

Maltsev, S. M. (1988). "On sub-sensory and sensorial-motor anticipation in the process of musical improvization." Voprosy Psikhologii. No 3: 115-122.

***

Mandel, K.H. (1970). Problems and initiation of behavior therapy with male homosexuals. Zeitschrift fur Psychotherapie und medizinische Psychologie, 20 (3), pp 115-125. Language: GERMAN.

This article discusses the problems of aversive conditioning of homosexual responses, and considers the literature on the various methods of behavioral therapy in male homosexuals.
Among the aversive methods developed to date, covert sensitization, as described by J.R. Cautela (1066) is the most acceptable.
The most important task in the treatment of homosexuals is establishing a stable heterosexual partner relationship.
To accomplish this, a precise analysis and elimination of avoidance responses along with cultivation of erotic-sexual reactions to specific female stimulations is necessary.
Visual stimulations play an important role in this process since it is through them that the chain of sexual interactions is elicited.
These problems have been previously neglected in behavioral therapy.
A difficult aspect in the treatment of homosexuals is the development of a feeling of love for the heterosexual partner which is free of subliminal anxiety and reaches beyond intensive heterosexual responses.

***

Manfield, D.C. (1987). Computer-assisted weight-loss: a subliminal and behavioral methodology for motivated females. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (9-B), p. 3943.

***

Marcel, A.J. (1983). Conscious and unconscious perception: An approach to the relations between phenomenal experience and perceptual processes. Cognitive Psychology, 15, pp 238-300.

***

Marcel, A.J. (1983). Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on visual masking and word recognition. Cognitive Psychology, 15 (2), pp 197-237. ISSN: 0010-0285.

Anthony Marcel presented five experiments in order to explore the relation of masking to consciousness and visual word processing.
Experiment 1 - a single word or blank field was followed by a pattern mask. The subjects then had to decide;

a) if anything proceeded the mask?,

b) to which of the two probe words was what preceded the mask more graphically?, and

c) to which of the two probe words was it more similar semantically?

As word-mask stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was reduced, the subjects reached chance performance on the detection, graphic, and semantic decisions in that order.
Experiment 2 - the subjects again had to choose which of the two words was more similar either graphically or semantically to a nondetectable masked word, but the forced-choice stimuli now covaried negatively on graphic and semantic similarity.
The subjects were now unable to choose selectively on each dimension, which suggests that their ability to choose in experiment 1 was passively rather than intentionally mediated.
Experiment 3 - the subjects had to make manual identification responses to color patches which were either accompanied or preceded by words masked to prevent awareness.
It was found that color congruent words facilitated reaction time, whereas color incongruent words delayed reaction time.
Experiment 4 - a lexical decision task was used where a trial consisted of the critical letter string following another not requiring a response. When both were words they were either semantically associated or not. The first letter string was either left unmasked, energy masked monoptically, or pattern masked dichoptically to prevent awareness.
The effect of association was equal in the unmasked and pattern masked cases, but absent in the energy masking.
Experiment 5 - repeating a word-plus-mask (where the SOA precluded detection) from 1 to 20 times;

a) increased the association effect on subsequent lexical decisions, but had no effect on,

b) detectability, or

c) the semantic relatedness of forced guesses of the masked word.

It is proposed that central pattern masking has little effect on visual processing itself (while peripheral energy masking does), but affects the availability of records of the results of those processes to consciousness.
Perceptual processing itself is unconscious and automatically proceeds to all levels of analysis and redescription available to the perceiver.

***

Marconi-Manda, L.R. (1980). Performance optimization as a function of accessory auditory stimulation for hyperactive and non-hyperactive children. St. John's University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (04-B), p. 1514.

Linda Marconi-Manda studied the differential effect of graduated levels of accessory auditory stimulation at the subliminal and supraliminal levels on the performance of hyperactive and normal children on an attention task.
Hyperactive children, who obtained scores of minimal brain dysfunction on specific psychological indices, and a control group, were further classified into high and low threshold groups on the basis of their absolute auditory thresholds.
The performance of each group on a video game, which required sustained concentration, was compared under six levels of white noise (-10 db, -15 db -20db, +10 db, +30 db and +50 db) and a no-noise level.
The results demonstrated that

(a) there was a distinct subgroup of hyperactive children who were less sensitive to auditory stimulation i.e., they had significantly higher auditory thresholds than the high threshold normals, unlike the low threshold hyperactives and normals who did not differ significantly from each other, and

(b) subliminal accessory auditory stimulation significantly enhanced the performance of the normal children but did not have a facilitatory arousal effect on the hyperactive children.

The results were interpreted in terms of the "under-arousability" proposal of the performance of hyperactive children.
The findings were offered as evidence to support a more complex etiology of hyperactivity - one involving other brain structures besides the reticular activating system,
particularly those implicated in incentive and reward.

***
Marketing Announcements:

Advertising Age. (1966, September, 19). Subliminal cuts show "hot car" in new Toyota push. 37, pp 3, 126.

It was reported that Toyota used one-sixth of a second flashes of a race car in a television commercial similar to the technique used in the film "The Pawnbroker."
The report included the pictures of the imbedded images used to exploit the higher horsepower of the car.

***

Advertising Age, (1973, December 24). "Subliminal" ad flap raised, p. 21.

It was reported that subliminal advertising is being used in a 60 second spot for Husker-Do, a game marked by Premium Corporation of America.
The Federal Trade Commission was requested to ban use of the subliminal commercial the ad places on the one minute film.

***

Florida trial of TV addict goes on the air. Broadcasting, (October 3, 1977), pp 31-32.

A 15-year-old boy is being tried for first-degree murder and his attorney is pleading that the boy is insane due to "involuntary, subliminal TV intoxication."

***

Games Corporations play: Sponsor a sports event. Marketing Communications, (November 1978), pp 20-26.

Although sports can sell almost everything, sports endorsements are an expensive advertising approach.
Some firms have found that straight advertising reaches a saturation point, while subliminal advertising, through event sponsorship and tie-ins keeps on working.

***

Whether subliminal perception influences behavior is examined by J. Saegert of the University of Texas at San Antonio. Journal of Advertising Research, (February 1979), pp 55-57.

Although subliminal perception is an emotional issue, the technique has potential applications for advertising and marketing if it has a reliable effect.
The literature regarding research into subliminal perception is reviewed, with particular emphasis on the work by Silverman.
Saegert feels that Silverman presents "..... convincing evidence for the influence of behaviors as a results of subliminal stimulation".

***

Subliminal communication is said to be capable of guiding and controlling human behavior. Business & Society Review, p. 62-64.

Subliminal messages can be programmed to fit specific applications.
H.C. Becker of Behavioral Engineering Corp. claims that the system his firm puts out will reduce shoplifting.
The affirmations, recorded just below hearing range, are repeated between 2,000 and 9,000 times per hour.
Examples of places where subliminal messages can be used, are; medical and dental offices, banks, supermarkets, retail stores, real estate agencies and general offices.
Workers and store customers should be notified that a system is use.

***

Experiments in subliminal communication continue. Output (January, 1981), pp 36 & 38.
The basic principle of subliminal communication is that the brain can receive aural and visual stimuli without the person being consciously aware of it.
Subliminal stimuli can affect behavior without making the individual aware of what is happening.
As the subliminal stimuli can be transmitted over a public address system or by television, the experience of subliminal communication could be used indiscriminately on may people at once.
Two areas of controversy regarding the use of subliminal stimuli are;

1) a concern about the ethical implications of using a technique to influence individual's behavior when they are not aware of it, and

2) whether the technique is actually effective.

***

"Subliminal synergism" - harmonized color schemes between an ad and facing editorial copy - attracts advertisers to New Woman magazine. Folio: The Magazine for Magazine Management. (September 1982), pp 32 & 34.

Subliminal synergism is where dominant colors from a four color ad behind headline blocks appear on the facing editorial pages.
This technique is said to draw the reader's eye into the ad and back into the editorial content.
Although the technique cannot be guaranteed it is being actively promoted to the advertisers by New Woman magazine.
The synergy can only be implanted on certain editorial section pages, that carry a particular size headline.

***

Environmental Video has introduced a Subliminal Persuasion video cassette that superimposes low level video messages on cassette tapes. Video News (July 22, 1983), pp 4 & 5.

The video cassette will help consumers lose weight, stop smoking or make other lifestyle changes.

***

Stimutech (E. Lansing, MI) launches Expando-Vision, a device that delivers subliminal messages via computer. Merchandising (December 1983), p. 42.

Using Expando-Vision, customers can now lose weight, stop smoking, control stress or improve their sexual confidence while watching TV.
The system works by flashing an extremely short message on the screen once every 2.5 minutes.
Examples of the messages used in the stress control program include, "I am calm", "I am tranquil" and "I see me at ease".
As the subconscious becomes imprinted with these messages, changes can be bought about in behavior.

***

Stimutech has introduced a device to change behavior by subliminal suggestion. Wall Street Journal, (September 30, 1983), p. 33.

The Expando-Vision box hooks into a TV set via a home computer, and works by flashing onto the screen, split-second images designed to help the viewer with weight loss, stress control, success motivation, sex. etc.
The company is not sure the device actually works, as prototype test results aren't in yet.

***

Pacific Bell's low-key approach to Olympic sponsorship. Public Relations Journal, (September 1984), pp 18-20.

Pacific Bell's corporate sponsorship of the Olympics achieved the results of a major ad campaign at far less cost.
The accumulative effect on reporters of many subtle news pieces, all united by theme and design gave the advertising campaign the effect of "wave" or "subliminal saturation".
By down-playing Pacific Bell and emphasizing the usefulness and popular tastes, the materials were in great demand.

***

Ads against wall in video background. Advertising Age, (February 28, 1985), p. 6.

Entertel is seeking advertisers to slip short messages into its ambient video.
For an ad to work in these videos it must blend into the story and convey its message without words.
The market for the videos could therefore be greatly increased by including subliminal advertising.

***

Company-Built retreats reflect firm's cultures and personalities. Wall Street Journal, (August 16, 1984), p. 27.

Firms who can afford to build their own training schools claim they are cheaper than resort hotels and better equipped to instill a sense of company culture.
The design of the centers is such that subliminal lessons are being taught about the corporate image and character.

***

Controversial "brainwashing" and self-hypnosis software released to public. News Releases, (October 1984), pp 1-4.

New Life Institute announced subliminal software for the IBM PC and compatibles.
The user can choose which problem area to address, such as weight-loss, stopping smoking.
The subconscious suggestions flash as a background while users work at other tasks such as word processing or data input.
In an 8 hour session at the computer, the user is exposed to 28,800 suggestions.
The package also includes a self-hypnosis program.

***

Dingell dangles clout over alcohol hearings. Advertising Age, (February 11, 1985), p. 2 & 84.

Sen. P. Hawkins, R-FL, closed a one-day Senate session before her alcoholism and drug abuse subcommittee by denouncing the "subliminal" effects of alcohol ads on the public.
It was argued by industry representatives that no one has proven the cause/effect relationship between beer and wine ads and alcohol abuse.

***

Dristan ads are blatantly subliminal. Marketing (December 9, 1985), 90 (49), p. 2. ISSN: 0025 3642.

An advertisement run by Whitehall Laboratories on its Dristan Cold Tablet is a spoof on so-called subliminal advertising.
Most of the times all the viewer sees is a blank screen with the Dristan box appearing for a few, one-thirtieth of a second intervals.
The voice-over tells viewers that they will forget the commercial, but that some day, when they need a cold remedy, they will remember the spot.
According to AC Nielson data, this ad has increased this product's market share.

***

Outdoor advertising requires great use of creativity. Marketing News, (June 7, 1985), pp 7 & 24.

The idea behind billboard advertising is the reinforcement of an ad message, and also as an aid to prompting consumer purchases.
Outdoor works well because of its ability to reinforce a message in a way that cannot be skipped over or ignored.
The subliminal effect is powerful.

***

Post yuppies - Are they turning into computer sneaks? New Release, (October 1, 1985), pp 1-4.

International Resource Development believes that the market for self-improvement software will rapidly increase as the home software market shifts to meet the needs of consumers 25 to 44 (the post-Yuppie generation.
There will be a growing demand for software that focuses on nutritional and exercise issues, diagnoses symptoms of illness and personality software that helps the user win friends etc.
Some programs raise the user's awareness of his/her personal habits, while others flash subliminal messages across the screen while something else is viewed.

***

Shoplifting Reduced 80% by Subliminal Technology. American Metal Market (August 16, 1984), p. 14.

Retail stores used subliminal appeals to reduce shoplifting by 80%, but critics worried about privacy and ethical issues.
Subliminal techniques entail projecting visual messages of short duration and transmitting low-volume audio messages that cannot be consciously perceived.
States such as California are considering legislation to bar subliminal technology without full disclosure to the individuals of its use and presence.
The American Civil Liberties Union claims the technology has enormous potential for abuse and is tantamount to brainwashing.

***

Spaghetti and tomato sauces -- why not aseptics? Paper, Film & Foil Converter, (October 1985), pp 100-104.

Aseptic tomato-based products are popular in the United Kingdom due to their image of being fresher.
This idea of freshness is furthered subliminally because of the packages limited shelf life.

***

Subliminal testing: 25 years later. Marketing Communications, (April 1985), p. 8. ISSN: 0091 1305.

Subliminal television advertising involves flashing images across a screen just below the level of conscious vision.
Recent psychological tests have shown the technique will elicit emotional reactions from viewers even though the actual mental processes responsible for it are at the unconscious level.
A problem with the use of this technique is that Congress and the FBI have declared the ads a threat to the consumer freedom of choice.

***

Suggestive software. Computer Decisions, (January 29, 1985), p. 26.

Greentree Publishers offers software that flashes subliminal messages on employee's VDTs.
Any type of message can be flashed on the screen, including positive notes that make employees feel good about their jobs, or a simple and more terse "work faster."

***

"Threshold messaging" touted as antitheft measure. Marketing News, (March 15, 1985), pp 5 & 6.

Proactive Systems in Portland, Ore. is offering a threshold messaging system for retailers as an antitheft service.
Low volume messages such as "Be honest", "Don't steal" and "We welcome honest shoppers" are played over loud speakers, thousands of times a day.
The messages are in a tiny microprocessor chip inside a computer, which is wired to volume-sensors in loud speakers, and matches the volume of the messages to the fluctuating noise in the store.
FCC regulations prohibit the use of subliminal, hidden or intentionally deceptive messages, but as, technically, the Proactive system is not subliminal nor subaudible, it is legal.
Proactive Systems client stores post signs on the front door notifying shoppers of the messaging.
Pre- and post-tests have been carried out on this product, and the results showed that it does affect shoplifting.
However, the system is only effective on shoppers who have been in the store for at least 8 minutes.

***

Enter a quiet voice against shoplifting. Providence Journal, (February 18, 1986), p. SecB & 1.

Subliminal messages are being used by retailers to combat shoplifting.
The idea behind the tapes is to reinforce a person's redisposition not to steal and not to create a desire to buy.
Subliminal tapes are responsible for a 25 to 35 percent decrease in shoplifting.

***

Reeling and dealing: Video meet Wall Street. Business Week Industrial Edition (May 19, 1986), pp 126-128.

Nearly all major brokerage firms are using video films to promote new products.
W.H. Liebman, of Frank-Guenther Law advertising agency, warns that the nature of visual medium is to offer a subliminal message that can be unduly influential.

***

Study claims office computer is used as management fink. MIS Week (April 21, 1986), p. 36.

Office computers are being used to monitor and control employees activities.
Under the guise of reducing stress and increasing productivity, employers monitor VDT operators and send them subliminal messages.

***

Subliminal messages: Subtle crime stoppers. Chain Store Age Executive Edition, July 1986), p. 85-88.

Subliminal messages are used in 1,000 plus retail stores as a deterrent to shoplifting.
The reinforcement of a subliminal being repeated scores of times an hour will have an effect on someone who is already predisposed to suggestion concerning his or her value system.
The messages will therefore not be effective on all shoplifters.

***

Crooked Employees. Building Supply & Home Centers, (April 1987), pp 88-94.

Building supply home centers turn to high-tech hardware to curb employee theft.
Some 20 to 25% of retailers use honesty tests and subliminal suggestions might prove to be helpful.

***

Pier Auge's re-entry more exclusive. Women's Wear Daily, (March 13, 1987), p. 30.

In-store Pier Auge institutes offer a 1.5 hour facial, during which customers hear subliminal tapes and have aroma treatments.

***

Spirit industry beams over BATF review. Advertising Age, (August 13, 1984), p. 6.

Amongst the BATF proposals regarding the advertising of alcohol, is the ban on subliminal advertising.

***

If this fails, try smashing the bug with the flat end of the radio. Wall Street Journal 3 Star, (Princeton, NJ) (June 5, 1985), 205 (109), p. 33. ISSN: 0043-0080.

Radio station, CIME-FM of Ste Therese, Quebec, broadcasts subliminal relaxation messages in the evening and subliminal-energizing messages in the morning.
***

CRTC changes mind on television rules. Marketing (Canada's weekly newspaper of marketing communication). (January 19, 1987). 92 (3), pp 1 & 3.

Amongst the other changes the CRTC have made to their regulations is the lifting of the ban regarding the use of subliminal advertising.
However, the CRTC has asked the industry to come up with its own guidelines.

***

Subliminal advertising: Fact or fantasy. Advertising Compliance Service. (November 18, 1985). 5 (22), pp 4-7. ISSN: 0277-9943.

This article discusses subliminal advertising with regards to the technique of tachistopic projection.
According to Wilson Brian Key, author of The Clamplate Orgy and Media Sexploitation, TV commercials are a rich source of subliminal adverting.
Tachistopic projection has been the subject of FCC notices and of Congressional hearings.
The FCC believes it has the authority to control subliminal advertising and cited several sections of the Communications Act of 1934 which support the authority.

***

Subliminal advertising: Fact or fancy. Advertising Compliance Service. (December 2, 1985). 5, (23), pp 8-12. ISSN: 0277-9943.

Possible suggestions for regulating subliminal advertising are:

1) adding a definition of subliminal advertising and a statement that it is unfair and deceptive to section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission act.

2) treating subliminal advertising as an invasion of privacy tort, but proving invasion of privacy would be difficult,

3) some people believe the ground work was laid by the court in Banzhaf vs FC, where a judge ruled that broadcast messages, unlike print ads, can not be avoided without conscious effort on the viewer or listener.

***

Subliminal advertising: Do messages lurk in the shadows?. Food and Beverage Marketing (October, 1985). 4, (10), p. 42. ISSN: 0731-3799.

Dr. Haberstroh, professor at Virginia Commonwealth University, states that there is no evidence that subliminal advertising affects products' sales.
The consumer, however, does believe that this kind of symbolism exists, and this is mainly due to the books by Wilson Brian Key.
Inspite of the denials by the advertising industry regarding the use of subliminals, their reputation with the consumer is poor.

***

Sidelights: Subliminal/videos. Television/Radio Age. (January 7, 1985). 32 (13), p. 96. ISSN: 0040-277X.

This article discusses the use of subliminal self-improvement video tapes.
While the consumer watches footage of fattening foods or ash-trays filled with cigarette butts, printed messages such as "eat less" and "you can do it" are being flashed on the screen at a rate to fast to register with the conscious mind.
The suggestions act on a subliminal level where they reportedly alter viewer behavior.
The safety and effectiveness of these suggestions remains to be seen.

***

Subliminal messages come out of the closet. Progressive Grocer. (April, 1985). 64 (4), pp 6 & 10. ISSN: 0033-0787.

Electronic subliminal messaging systems, using "honesty reinforcements" messages, have resulted in as much as 30% reductions in retail thefts.
Subliminal messages are normally adjusted to the level of the noise in the store.
Proactive Systems of Milwaukee have overcome objections by critics to "mind control" by developing a system that can be turned up to the "threshold of hearing" so that the messages can be heard if listened to.
However, it is claimed that this system may not be as effective as it works best when the consumer is unaware of the messages.

***

A report on subliminal perception and subliminal tapes for self-improvement. Institute of Human Development. (1986).

This guide provided detailed information about what subliminal perception is and how you can use subliminal tape programming to make the life changes you desire.

***

What's new in subliminal messages by John Lofflin. The New York Times. (March 20, 1988). p. 63.

Although there is still great controversy over the effectiveness of subliminal messages, self help audio cassette containing subliminal messages are taking bookstores by storm.
The self-help subliminal tapes available cover a whole range of problems from stopping nail-biting to cancer remission.
Subliminal computer software is available but due to inadequacies of monitors available, they are not a big seller. One of the advantages of this software is that the user can write their own subliminal messages, which researchers say may be more effective because the words are cast in a familiar way.
The potential for the mis-use of subliminals discussed.

***

There's less to subliminal audio tapes than meets the ears. Your Personal Best. (June, 1990).

Timothy Moore, Ph.D., former chairman of the psychology department at Glendon College, York University, Toronto, states that self-help subliminal audio tapes are form of health fraud.
Anthony Greenwald, Ph.D., professor of psychology at the University of Washington carried out a "normal use" study on four brands of subliminal self-help audio tapes and found them to have no effect. There was no mention as to which brands were tested or the technology and specifications employed in manufacturing them.
Moore states that not one respectable study has shown that audio subliminal have any effect on behavior, but that visual subliminals do have an effect.
There is no mention of any research carried out by Moore to substantiate his claims.

***

Martin, A. (1975). The effect of subliminal stimulation of symbiotic fantasies on weight loss in obese women receiving behavioral treatment. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (6-B), pp 3054-3055.

***

Martin, D.G., Hawryluk, G.A. & Guse, L.L. (1974). Experimental study of unconscious influences: Ultrasound as a stimulus. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83.

***

Masling, J. M., R. F. Bornstein, et al. (1991). "Perception without awareness and electrodermal responding: A strong test of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects." Journal of Mind & Behavior 12(1): 33-47.

This study presented 84 male undergraduates with the anxiety arroussing message, "no one love me." Results suggests that drive related stimuli must be presented subliminally to have effects on behavior (Silverman's hypothesis).

***

Masling, J. M. (1992). What does it all mean? Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 259-276.
(from the chapter) (provides) some sense of where the field (of psychological research into subliminal perception) has been and is going and (attempts) to locate patterns in research results /// research on perception without awareness / brain activity in perception without awareness / use of benign stimuli to study perception without awareness.

***

Maxwell, N. (1980, November 25). Words whispered to subconscious supposedly deter thefts, fainting.

Wall Street Journal.

Neil Maxwell reported on a subliminal message system in a New Orleans supermarket, which accounted for a drop in pilferage loss from about $50,000 to less than $13,000 in six months.
Cashier shortages dropped from $125 per week to less than $10 per week.

***

McConnell, J.V., Cutler, R.L. & McNeil, E.B. (1958). Subliminal stimulation: An overview. American Psychologist, 13.

***

McCormack, J.J. (1980). Effects of gender, intensity and duration of sex-related visual subliminals upon the submission of controlled attention. East Texas State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 41 (6-A), pp 2409-2410.

John McCormack performed this study in order to determine if a subject's own admission of controlled attention was altered by varying levels of projected light intensities and durations of a sex-related subliminal message.
The correlation between the respondents' admission of controlled attention and their gender also was investigated.
An inquiry was made into differences in responses of the various stimulated groups and the unstimulated control groups.
Without their knowledge, subjects were exposed to a sex-related subliminal message within a normal classroom environment.
The subliminal presentation was linked to a learning task provided within the post test.
The subjects were divided into seven groups;

Group 1 received such stimulation at a .975-footcandle intensity for 15 minutes.

Group 2 was stimulated with a .975-footcandle presentation for 5 minutes.

Group 3 encountered the .975-footcandle subliminal display for one minutes.

Group 4 received the message at a .650-footcandle intensity for 15 minutes.

Group 5 was administered the image for 5 minutes at .650-footcandles.

Group 6 was stimulated at the .650-footcandle intensity for 1 minute.

Group 7 was a control group and received no stimulation.

A two-way analysis of variance, the Friedman's Analysis of Variance, the independent t-test, the Mann-Whitney U test, and the Pearson product-moment correlation were performed on the results.
The results of the study were;

1) a statistically significant relationship was found between intensities and durations of a sex-related visual subliminal message upon subjects' submission of controlled attention to a prescribed learning task,

2) no statistically significant difference was found among groups which were different only in the intensity of subliminal stimulation they received,

3) some evidence of a statistically significant difference was found among groups which were different only in the duration of subliminal stimulation they received, and

4) no evidence of a statistically significant correlation was found between the gender of the subject and the submission of controlled attention to a prescribed learning task.

It was concluded that;

1) the use of sex-related subliminal stimulation has a significant effect on learners' admission of their submission of controlled learning tasks, and

2) the use of rheostatically controlled light images does provide an efficient and inexpensive method for the introduction of subliminal messages in a classroom environment.

***

McDaniel, S.W., Hart, S.H. & McNeal, J.U. (1981). Mid-Atlantic Journal of Business, 20 (1), pp 41-48. ISSN: 0021-9401.

Stephen McDaniel, Sandra Hart and James McNeal reviewed the findings of several subliminal stimulation experiments and considered possible business applications of subliminal stimulation.
Areas analyzed were;

1) the influence of subliminal stimulation on an individual's behavior,

2) the ability of research marketing to affect the consumer through subliminal, and

3) the success of actual subliminal stimulation in marketing attempts.

The findings indicated that;

a) individuals are able to register stimuli at a subliminal level,

b) physiological drives, such as hunger, thirst and sex are evidently aroused by the stimuli, and

c) some kinds of behavioral changes are induced.

d) there is no evidence that brand preference and advertisement recall are affected by the stimuli, and

e) the results do not show that subliminal advertising affects the buying behavior of consumers.

***

McGinley, L. (1986, January 1). Uncle Sam believes messages about mom help calm nerves. Wall Street Journal.

This article reported that several studies clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of subliminal technology.

***

McGreen, P. (1986). The effects of father absence on affective responses to subliminal symbiotic messages. Ohio University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (11-B), pp 4021-4022. ISSN: 0419-4209.

***

McIver, T. (1988). Backward masking, and other backward thoughts about music. The Skeptical Inquirer, 13, pp 50-63.

Tom McIver discusses the use of backward masking and subliminals in popular rock music.

***
McLaughlin, M. (1987). Subliminal tapes urge shoppers to heed the warning sounds of silence: "Don't steal". New England Business, 9 (2), pp 36-37. ISSN: 0164-3533.

This article reports on a system developed by David Riccio, president of Viaticus Group, which consists of musical audio programs for retail stores combined with subliminal messages designed to discourage shoplifting.
Research shows that shoplifting has been reduced between 20 and 40% in settings that use this approach.
The system is not, however, being recommended as a blanket answer to security systems.
Another point to be noted also, is that the system is only effective amongst those with a predisposition to consider and respond to the subliminal messages.

***

McNulty, J.A., Dockrill, F.J. & Levy, B.A. (1967) The subthreshold perception of stimulus meaning? American Journal of Psychology, 80 (1), pp 28-40. ISSN: 0002-9556.
***

Mencarelli, J. (1983, June 23). The music is the message? Or is the message in the music? Ann Arbor News.

***

Mendelsohn, E.M. (1979). Responses of schizophrenic men to subliminal psychodynamic stimuli. Yeshiva University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (12-B, part 1), pp 5820 5821.

***

Mendelsohn, E.M. (1981). The effects of stimulating symbiotic fantasies on manifest pathology in schizophrenics. A revised formulation. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, pp 580-590.

***

Mendelson, M. (1984). An investigation of the relationship between the symbiotic subliminal stimulus Mommy and I are One and oral receptivity and oral aggressivity as measured by the Rorschach test. Florida Institute of Technology. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (5-B), pp 1601-1602. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Morris Mendelsohn investigated the relationship between a symbiotic subliminal stimulus (Mommy and I are one) and behaviour as measured by the Rorschach.
The experimental group were shown the symbiotic stimulus by use of a tachistoscope, and the control group were shown the neutral stimulus, (people are walking).
Both groups were shown the Rorschach cards with the study being limited to the oral receptive and oral aggressive components to illustrate the psychodynamics of symbiotic symbiosis.
Previous studies have shown that the fantasy of oneness with a maternal representative may result in transference improvements because the therapist is experienced as a reincarnate of the parent, providing protection and a lost omnipotence.

***
Mendelsohn, E. & Silverman, L.H. (1982). Effects of stimulating psychodynamically relevant unconscious fantasies on schizophrenic psychopathology. New York Hospital, Cornell Medical Center, Division of Psychology, Westchester. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 8 (3), pp 532-547. ISSN: 0586-7614.

Eric Mendelsohn and Lloyd Silverman reviewed the research on the effects of subliminal tachistoscopic presentation of aggressive and oneness fantasies on the manifest pathology of adult schizophrenics.
The findings indicate that the activation of particular unconscious fantasies can lead to exacerbation or amelioration of schizophrenic symptoms, regardless of etiology.
Activation of oral-aggressive fantasies produced increases in disordered thinking, while libidinal stimuli affected cognitive efficiency and nonverbal pathology.
The fact that these results do not tend to hold when stimuli are visible to subjects is consistent with the view that, once a stimulus that activates disturbing mental content reaches awareness, its status as a motivator may be diminished.
Stimulation of a fantasy of symbiotic-like gratification produced temporary symptomatic improvement in "differentiated" male schizophrenics. This effect, however, was conditional because such fantasies may have disturbing as well as therapeutic connotations.
Also discussed were the specific conditions under which the subliminal activation of fantasies have a positive or negative effect.

***

Merikle, P.M. (1982). Unconscious perception revisited. University of Waterloo, Canada. Perception & Psychophysics, 31 (3), pp 298-301. ISSN: 0031-5117.

Philip Merikle reviewed recent studies to evaluate the validity of the perception-without awareness hypotheses.
Studies demonstrating the efficacy of masked priming stimuli do not necessarily demonstrate perception without awareness.
In all studies, awareness or consciousness was defined as the ability to make discriminated verbal reports.
An absence of discriminated verbal reports does not necessarily imply an absence of awareness, or in other words, an inability to discriminate primes from blank fields.
Information is needed regarding the response distributions in order to establish that an absence of discriminated verbal reports actually indicates the absence of awareness.
It was concluded that none of the experiments can provide definitive evidence for or against perception without awareness. This is because all of the studies had too few trials at the threshold stimulus onset asynchrony to establish meaningful response distributions.

***

Merikle, P. M. and E. M. Reingold (1992). Measuring unconscious perceptual processes. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 55-80.
(from the chapter) review the more traditional approaches to the study of unconscious perception / indicate why the research based on these approaches is problematic and controversial / in light of the inherent problems with these traditional approaches, we (the authors) discuss two alternative approaches / one approach emphasizes how qualitative differences can be used as converging evidence to validate measures of perception as possible exhaustive indices of relevant conscious experience / the second approach illustrates how much of the controversy over the measurement of conscious experience can be bypassed by using a methodology that does not require any assumption that a particular measure necessarily provides either an exhaustive or an exclusive index of awareness / we believe that these alternative approaches have the potential to resolve some of the long-standing controversies that have continually plagued experimental investigations directed at the study of unconscious perceptual processes.

***

Merikle, P. M. and H. E. Skanes (1992). "Subliminal self-help audiotapes: A search for placebo effects." Journal of Applied Psychology 77(5): 772-776.

Subliminal self-help weight loss tapes were evaluated. The tapes were obtained from one commercial company. Results suggest that regular use of the tapes may simply make users more aware of their weight. Three groups of subjects, an experimental, a control a placebo group were involved in the design. All three groups lost approximately equivalent weight.

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Messina, J. (1991). The effects of subliminal stimuli in naturally occurring mood states on the performance of a perceptual task, Fordham U, NY, US.

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Meyers, H.G. (1982). The effects of a double bind induced by conflicting visual and auditory subliminal stimuli. St. John's University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (8-B), p. 3432. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Helen Meyers performed this study in order to determine the effects on state anxiety, word associations and word recognition ability of conflicting positive and negative auditory and visual subliminal messages.
The subliminal psychodynamic activation technique was used in order to stimulate the general characteristics of a short-term double bind.
Subjects classified as either right or left hemisphere activators, were tested before and after five subliminal conditions in which different combinations of auditory and visual subliminal messages were presented simultaneously.
Two hypotheses were put forward;

1) there would be disruptive effects of the simulated double bind communications, and

2) there would be positive effects with the congruent symbiotic stimulation.

The hypotheses were only upheld for the blocking scores on the word association test.
The lack of complete support for the subliminal activation of the double bind was discussed with reference to;

a) the elusiveness of the double bind concept,

b) the sensitivity of the subliminal technique to individual differences and minor procedural variations, and

c) the capability of the dependent measures to adequately reflect subtle short term changes in affective and cognitive states.

It was found that the complex interactions and effects involving various sex and hemispheric activation factors further complicated the interpretation of the data.
Further studies were recommended in order to investigate;

a) possible connections between a preference for a left hemisphere cognitive style,

b) susceptibility to the double bind, and

c) disruptions in associative thought processes.

It was suggested that further research focus on the interrelationship of cognitive and defensive styles, and inter- and intra-personal dynamics of males and females as these variables affect reaction to double bind situations, susceptibility to subliminal stimulation and performance on memory tasks.

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Mibashan, D. (1992). Auditory subliminals: Effects on the emotional tone of a writing task and on the subjects' mood, U Ottawa, ON, Canada.

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Miller, J.G. (1939). Discrimination without awareness. American Journal of Psychology, 52, pp 562-578.

James Miller used an opaque mirror to project five subliminal images.
The results showed that the subjects were able to discriminate projected objects to a degree significantly greater than chance. When the subjects were told that subliminal images had been projected during the trials, they were surprised and incredulous.

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Miller, J.M. (1974). The effects of aggressive stimulation upon young adults who have experienced the death of a parent during childhood or adolescence. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35 (2-B), pp 1055-1056.

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Miller, J. (1991). "Threshold variability in subliminal perception experiments: Fixed threshold estimates reduce power to detect subliminal effects." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance 17(3): 841-851.

This study undertakes the threshold issue with repect to subliminal stimuli. The author points out that thresholds for individuals vary and this has serious consequences on the results of any subliminal perception study. Miller's research shows that the "true" threshold of a subject varies from trial to trial.

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Miller, L. (1986). In search of the unconscious. Seton Hall University. Psychology Today, 20 (12), pp 60-64. ISSN: 0033-3107.

In this article, Lawrence Miller discussed the use of the techniques and concepts of the neurosciences to examine fundamental Freudian constructs such as the unconscious mind, repression, dream symbolism, sexuality, and the development of neurotic symptoms.
Amongst the relevant researched reviewed was subliminal perception.

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Mind invasion: The facts. (December, 1973). Family Health, p. 42.

This article presents information about Hal Becker's "little black box," U.S. patent No. 3,278,676.
The article includes pro and con quotes from several experts in the fields of subliminal communication and law enforcement.

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Mitchell, C. W. (1993). Effects of masked auditory verbal stimuli on behavior, Indiana State U, US.

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Mitchell, C. W. (1995). "Effects of subliminally presented auditory suggestions of itching on scratching behavior." Perceptual & Motor Skills 80(1): 87-96.

This study presented verbal itching suggestions masked in music on an audio tape. No evidence for the subliminal influence was found.

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Mitchell. M.S. (1985). The effects of subliminally presented praise and reprobation stimuli on willingness to self-disclose. Arizona State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (12-B Pt 1), p. 3986. ISSN: 0419-4209.

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Mofield, J.P. (1986). Response of blood pressure to relaxation and subliminal suggestion. Ball State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (9-A), p. 2632. ISSN: 0419-4209.

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Mogg, K., B. P. Bradley, et al. (1993). "Subliminal processing of emotional information in anxiety and depression." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102(2): 304-311.

Using a modified version of the Stroop color test, researchers showed a realtively slower color identification (naming) when paired with supraliminal and subliminal negative words.

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Mogg, K., J. Kentish, et al. (1993). "Effects of anxiety and awareness on colour-identification latencies for emotional words." Behaviour Research & Therapy 31(6): 559-567.

Using a modified Stroop color naming test the interference effect of subliminal and supraliminal emotional words was measured. Results show a correlation between mood state preparation (anxiety or relaxation) and increases in trait anxiety and interference on the naming task.

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Moller, A. T., H. F. Kotze, et al. (1993). "Comparison of the effects of auditory subliminal stimulation and rational-emotive therapy, separately and combined, on self-concept." Psychological Reports 72(1): 131-145.

Findings show a significant increase in self concept for the subliminal group in this study which compared auditory subliminal stimulation with Rational Emotive Therapy (RET). Subjects in the RET only treatment group showed significant gains in all dependent measures except for behavior.

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Montgomery, D. P. (1990). The effects of subliminal visual symbiotic stimulation on the self concept of college students, Oklahoma State U, US.

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Moore, J.F. (1982). An exploratory study of subliminal perception and field dependence in a concept learning task taught by television. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44 (01-A), p. 49.

John Moore studied the effects of subliminal captions on recall of cognitive information presented in a TV program.
In 4 sessions, the subjects saw an 8-minute captioned TV program about ancient architecture and then completed the Group Embedded Figures Test, a recall test, several qualitative rating items concerning the program, and demographic questions.
A post-test only 2x4 design was used.
The captioning method was varied so as to give four experimental conditions;

1) subliminal captions only,

2) conventional (visible) captions only,

3) subliminal and visible combined for reinforcement, and

(4) subliminal and visible incorrectly matched for interference.

It was found that, in comparison to other treatments, the program having "combined" captions produced significantly higher recall among field dependents and received significantly higher ratings on teaching effectiveness and student interest.
It was concluded that recall is improved when conventional instruction is supplemented with subliminal.

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Moore, T.E. (1982). Subliminal advertising: What you see is what you get. York University, Glendon College, Toronto, Canada. Journal of Marketing, 46 (2), pp 38-47. ISSN: 0022-2429.

Timothy Moore evaluates the evidence and arguments advanced in support of the effectiveness of various subliminal advertising techniques.
Subliminal advertising techniques are purported to influence consumer behavior by subconsciously altering preferences or attitudes toward consumer products.
While there is some evidence that subliminal stimuli may influence reactions, the marketing relevance of this finding is not documented.
The idea that subliminal directives can influence behavior is contradicted by much research and is incompatible with theoretical conceptions of perceptions and motivation.
Subliminal perception is real but the effects are subtle and obtaining them requires a carefully constructed context.
The potential impact of subliminal stimuli is easily countered by ongoing stimulation in the same sensory channel or by the attention being focused on another modality.

***

Moore, T.E. (1985). Subliminal delusions. Psychology Today, 19 (2), p. 10.

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Moore, T.E. (1988). The case against subliminal manipulation. Glendon College, York University. Psychology and Marketing, 5 (4), pp 297-316.

Timothy Moore claims that there is no scientific evidence to support the claims that subliminal stimuli can have significant effects on motives and behavior.
Moore states that there is nothing to be concerned about when advertisers or musicians use subliminals.

***

Moore, T. E. (1989). "Subliminal psychodynamic activation and the establishment of thresholds." American Psychologist 44(11): 1420-1421.

Comments on SPA research suggesting that mixed findings may be due to different "subliminality."

***

Moore, T. E. (1995). "Subliminal self-help auditory tapes: An empirical test of perceptual consequences." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 27(1): 9-20.

Tested certain commercially available subliminal audio tapes and determined that they do not meet the minimum necessary requirements for demonstrating subliminal perception.

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Morgan D.L. (Ed.). (1987). Readings in subliminal communication. (Rev. ed.). Report No. 1. Clarion, PA: Center for Independent Research.

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Morgan, D.L. & Cole, M.J. (1987). Subliminal suppression of pain. (Report No. 5.). Clarion University, PA: Center for Independent Research,

An investigation was carried to test the hypothesis that more than half the subjects who use the SCWL technique for pain relief would report a reduced intensity of pain.
The results showed that;

a) 52 percent of the subjects reported that while using the tape, they experienced no pain or it was forgotten except when their attention was directed to it.

b) 67 percent reported that they received the benefit that they expected from the tape.

c) 76 percent reported noticeable relief, and

d) 81 percent continued to use the tape.

No control group was used.
The number of patients who did report relief with the tape (76 percent) was statistically significant.

***

Morgan, D.L. & Morgan, P.K. & Kole, J. (1985). Effect of subliminal messages on academic performance. Report No. 2. Clarion University, PA: Center for Independent Research.

Don Morgan, Patricia Morgan and James Kole demonstrated the effectiveness of subliminal techniques for improving academic performance.
A double blind study was performed to test the effects of an SCWL program, designed to increase recall in test situations. The results showed that the experimental group outperformed their classmates who listened to identical sounding placebo tapes containing no subliminal messages.
It was found that;

1) the subliminal group reported an increase in the number of hours spent in study and the control group reported a decrease.

2) the experimental group quality point grade average went from 2.28 to 2.73 while the control group average dropped from 2.47 to 2.46.

***

Morgan, D.L. & Morgan, P.K. (1987). Subliminal learning. (Report NO. 4). Clarion University, PA: Center for Independent Research, 40 pages.

Don and Patricia Morgan surveyed the research related to use of subliminal communication in schools and other learning situations.

***

Morgan, P.K. & Morgan, D.L. (1988). Subliminal Research: Bibliography and Review. (Report No. 3). Center for Independent Research.

Patricia and Don Morgan presented a bibliography and review of all the literature relating to subliminal communication.

***

Moriarty, J.B. (1968). Cognitive functioning of schizophrenics as affected by "aggressive" stimuli subliminally and supraliminally presented. Fordham University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 29( 2-B), p. 775.

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Moroney, E. & Bross, M. (1984). Effect of subliminal visual material on an auditory signal detection task. Concordia University, Montreal, Canada. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 58 (1), pp 103-113. ISSN: 0031-5125.

Elaine Moroney and Michael Bross performed this experiment in order to assess whether subliminally embedded visual material could have effects on an auditory detection task, which would indicate that subliminal registration occurred.
Subjects were presented tachistoscopically with words designated as "emotional" or "neutral" on the basis of prior GSRs and a word rating list under 4 conditions;

a) unembedded neutral,

b) embedded neutral,

c) unembedded emotional, and

d) embedded emotional.

On each trial, the subjects made forced choices concerning the presence or absence of an auditory tone (1000Hz) at threshold level.
Hits and false-alarm rates were used to compute non-parametric indices for sensitivity and response bias.
While overall ANVOAs yielded no significant differences, further examination of the data suggested the presence of subliminally receptive and nonreceptive subpopulations.

***

Moroney, E. and M. Bross (1984). "Effect of subliminal visual material on an auditory signal detection task." Perceptual & Motor Skills 58(1): 103-113.

Results suggest a differentiation between subliminally receptive and subliminally non receptive populations.

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Morrison, A.P. (1984). Reflections on "Unconscious oneness fantasies." Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Mental Health Center, Boston. International Forum for Psychoanalysis, 1 (2), pp 167-180. ISSN: 0738-8217.

Andrew Morrison discusses the work of L.H. Silverman et al who found that the presentation of subliminal symbiotic messages to some psychiatric patients, including schizophrenics, had the effect of decreasing or increasing their psychopathology, depending on the message content (and, for schizophrenics, on the degree of differentiation).
Unlike the conclusions of Silverman et al, Morrison suggests that the ability to tolerate feelings of union and individuation is a major task of therapy.
A case history of a 30-year-old man who had fantasies of merging with a male friend is described.

***

Morse, R.C. & Stoller, D. (September, 1982). The hidden message that breaks habits. Science Digest, 90, p. 28.

This article reviews subliminal research and concludes that, "Experiments show subliminal stimuli possess mysterious therapeutic powers."
The example of subliminal advertising given was the six-week test of the technique in 1957, where viewers at a Fort Lee, New Jersey movie theater were exposed to "eat popcorn" and "drink Coca-Cola" messages flashed on the screen every five seconds for about 1/1000 of a second during the film.
Popcorn sales increased by 57.5% and Coca-Cola sales by 18%.

***

Moss, M. R. (1988). Effects of subliminally activated merging fantasies on memory, New York U, US.

Mowbray, G.H. (1964). Perception and retention of verbal information presented during auditory shadowing. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 36, pp 1459-1464.

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Mullins, W.W. (1978). Convexity theorem for subthreshold stimuli in linear models of visual contrast detection. Carnegie-Mellon University. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 68 (4), pp 456-459. ISSN: 0030-3941.

Mullins discusses the convexity theorem for subthreshold stimuli in linear models of visual contrast detection.
If it is assumed that visual contrast detection occurs by a parallel array of linear detectors, either without probability summation or with probability summation of a commonly used type, then the set of functions representing subthreshold stimuli must be convex.

***

Murch, G.M. (1965). A set of conditions for a consistent recovery of a subliminal stimulus. Journal for Applied Psychology, 49 (4), pp 257-260. ISSN: 0021-9010.

Gerald Murch conducted this study,

a) in order to test the possibility for the recovery of subliminally presented stimuli, and

b) to aid in the understanding of the conditions under which effects of subliminal stimulation can be found with consistency.

Three experimental groups, each with their corresponding controls, were given mathematical problems in a tachistoscope as a supraliminal stimulus.
The experimental groups received subliminal answers to the problems at a level established by a pre-test group.
Group 1 attempted to solve the problems, group 2 to guess the answers and group 3 to select their answers from dual possibilities on a given list.
Groups 1 and 2 showed a significant tendency to repeat various subliminally projected digits in their answers , without the answers directly affecting their computational processes.
Group 3 selected the projected answers significantly over the correct answers.
It was found that their is a need for a positive relationship between supra- and subliminal stimuli as well as the relevancy of the task to the subject's present activity.

***

Murch, G.M. (1967). Temporal gradients of response to subliminal stimuli. Portland State College. Psychological Record, 17 (4),pp 483-492.

Gerald Murch performed this study in order to investigate the duration of the effects of subliminal stimulation in a discrimination situation.
Parts of two letters were shown supraliminally in a three-field tachistoscope.
Subliminal completions of these letters were presented which were to be discriminated from two other equally likely alternatives not previously presented subliminally.
The presentation of the response categories was delayed for 0, 100, 250, 500, 1000 or 2000 msec.
The major results of each experiment indicated increased response probabilities after delays of 1, 100 and 250 msec.
A tendency for more rapid responding to correspond to the selection of the subliminal stimulus was observed, however.
Lengthening the time in which a response could be made did not increase response accuracy.
A general model based on threshold changes of stimulated receptors is presented.

***

Murphy, S. T. and R. B. Zajonc (1993). "Affect, cognition, and awareness: Affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 64(5): 723-739.

This study showed that minimal cognitive exposure could result in displaced or diffused onto unrelated stimuli. The Zajonc hypothesis of affective primacy which asserts that both positive and negative responses can be evoked with minimal stimulus input and virtually no cognitive processing was supported. Further, the data from this study suggest that when minimal exposure to a stimulus occurs, eliciting affect out of awareness, it is diffuse and non-specific.

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Mykel, N.B. (1977). Emergence of unreported stimuli into imagery as a function of laterality of presentation. Georgia State University School of Arts and Sciences. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37 (8-B), p. 4158.

Nancy Mykel performed three experiments.
Experiment 1 successfully replicated Henley and Dixon (1974).
Two experimental groups received subliminal words to the right ear and music to the left ear or vice versa.
After eight minutes, the subjects were asked to report all imagery evoked during the session and complete a checklist containing stimulus, associated, and nonrelated words, guessing as to which might have been presented during the session.
The results showed that emergence of subliminal material was greater with words to the right ear (i.e. to the speech hemisphere) than with no words.
In experiment 2 the music was eliminated. The experimental subjects therefore received subliminal messages to the right ear, and the control subjects received no input at all.
Again, the emergence and number of stimulus or associated words checked by the subjects were greater for the experimental group.
In the third experiment, the subjects were trained in relaxation and instruction in becoming aware of the imagery, and reported imagery during stimulus presentation rather than after.
The subjects were divided into three groups;

a) group 1 received subliminal words to the right ear,

b) group 2 received subliminal words to the left ear, and

c) group 3 received no input.

The group which received words to the right ear was judged to contain the least amount of emergence.
Possible reasons for this result were discussed.

***

Mykel, N. & Davies, W.F. (1979). Emergence of unreported stimuli into imagery as a function of laterality of presentation: A replication of and extension of research by Henley and Dixon (1974). Gallia-Jackson-Meigs Community Mental Health Center, Gallipolis, OH. British Journal of Psychology, 70 (2), pp 253-258. ISSN: 0007-1269.

Nancy Mykel and Walter Davies performed two experiments.
For experiment 1, the subjects were divided into to groups, group one received subliminal words to the right ear and music to the left, and group two, words to the left and music to the right.
The results showed that emergence of subliminal material was greater with words to the right ear than with no words.
There was no difference in the results obtained from the group who received words to the left ear, and the control group.
For experiment 2, the music was eliminated and additional subjects received either subliminal words to the right ear or no words at all.
The results showed a significant difference between the groups for emergence of the subliminal stimuli and on the checklist, but not when the results were categorized by judges.
These results replicate the work of Henley and Dixon and extend them to the condition where no music is presented.

***

Nachmias, D. (1981, March). Subliminal politics. Annals of American Academic Politics and Social Science, 454 (2), p. 230.

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Nakamura, Y. (1990). Explorations in implicit perceptual processing: Studies of preconscious information processing, U California, San Diego, US.

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Narens, L., K. A. Jameson, et al. (1994). Subthreshold priming and memory monitoring. Metacognition: Knowing about knowing. A. P. S. Janet Metcalfe, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, US: 71-92.
(from the chapter) describes research concerning the influence of subthreshold as well as conscious priming on (1) recall, (2) subjective evaluation of knowing answers to questions, and (3) subjective evaluation of learning / the empirical findings show different patterns of results for evaluations of knowing and evaluations of learning / a theory is presented that explains these patterns in terms of differences in putative strategies used to relate the evaluations of knowing and learning to later performance tests.

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Nash, C.B. (1986). Comparison of subliminal and extrasensory perception. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 53 (805), pp 435-455.

This study compared subliminal perception (SP) and ESP. The author contends that many instances of SP are present during ESP events.

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Neuberg, S. L. (1988). "Behavioral implications of information presented outside of conscious awareness: The effect of subliminal presentation of trait information on behavior in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game." Social Cognition 6(3): 207-230.

Using subliminal primes, a significant increase in competitiveness among 105 male undergraduates , resulted. Behavioral predispositions were matched with primes and where congruent, the data indicated significant increases in competitiveness.

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Nicholson, H.E. (1980). The effect of contradictory subliminal stimuli and sensitization thereto upon viewer's perceptions of video-taped testimony. Michigan State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (9-A), p. 4802.

Henry Nicholson designed this study in order to ascertain whether video taped testimonies in legal proceedings are alterable by superimposing subliminal messages on these tapes.
Several items of testimony in a video tape deposition, which were intrinsically equivalent in terms of viewer retention, belief and perceived importance, were identified.
Four video tapes were produced which contained visual testimony-contradicting messages.
The intensity of the superimposed messages was different in each of the four tapes.
The subjects were divided into two groups, one sensitized to the presence of the messages, and the other not.
Results showed no difference between the subliminal experimental group and the control group.
Subjects in the supraliminal conditions exhibited significantly lower belief of testimony and significantly more positive attitude towards participation than did other subjects.
Sensitization to the presence of the stimuli was found to significantly decrease belief and increase perceived importance of testimony.
The conclusions drawn from this study is that video taped presentations of testimony can be made to juries without adverse effects from subliminal messages.

***

Nicholson, S.M. (1980). The effects of four types of subliminal stimuli on female depressives. Yeshiva University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (7-B), pp 3412-3413.

Niedenthal, P. M. (1988). Unconscious affect in social cognition, U Michigan, US.

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Niedenthal, P. M. (1990). "Implicit perception of affective information." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 26(6): 505-527.

Evidnece was derived in this study for implicit perception of nonverbal affective information. The role of undetected affective information in society is discussed.

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Niedenthal, P. M. (1992). Affect and social perception: On the psychological validity of rose colored glasses. Perception without awareness: Cognitive, clinical, and social perspectives. T. S. P. Robert F. Bornstein, Guilford Press, New York, NY, US: 211-235.

(from the chapter) affective reactions are elicited by objects of perception; thus, affect could both be elicited by and influence perception of the same stimulus / this would require that the stimulus, or some aspect of it, be perceived implicitly (nonconsciously) and that the affect guide the nature of the final conscious percept /// evaluate evidence for both of these implications, particularly as they apply to social perception / attempt to conceptualize the role of affect in perception in such a way as to integrate various early and more recent experimental findings.

***

Nissenfield, S.M. (1980). The effects of four types of subliminal stimuli on female depressives. Yeshiva University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (7-B), pp 3412-3413.

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Nolan, K.A. & Caramazza, A. (1982). Unconscious perception of meaning: A failure to replicate. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 20 (1), pp 23-26. ISSN: 0090-5054.

Karen Nolan and Alfonso Caramazza failed to substantiate A.J. Marcel's claim that semantic information (SI) can be extracted from visually presented words and can affect responses to subsequent stimuli under conditions that prevented identification of the stimulus word and even awareness of its presence.
The subjects were assigned to either visual or semantic groups.
The results obtained were consistent with the traditional information processing models of reading, which state that retrieval of a semantic representation for a visually presented word requires prior computation of a graphemic code for the word and that SI cannot become available in the absence of corresponding visual/graphemic information.
***

Novomeysky, A. (1984). "On the possible effect of an experimenter's subliminal or telepathic influence on dermo-optic sensitivity." PSI Research 3(1): 8-15.

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Oberlander, R. (1979). Beauty in a hospital aids the cure. Hospitals, 53 (6), pp 89-92. ISSN: 0018-5973.

It has been found that color photography, combined with nature, acts as a healing medium on a conscious level as well as on subliminal levels.

***
O'Dowd, W. T. (1987). "Comment on Silverman and Weinberger: Rankian hypotheses confirmed." American Psychologist 42(10): 955-956.

Comments on the comparison between Rank's observations and ideas set forth in the mid 1920's and the work of Silverman and Weinberg with SPA's.

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Ofman, P.S. (1988). Effects of sexual and aggressive subliminal stimulation on response to sexual and aggressive humor. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (7-B), p. 2105.

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O'Grady, M. (1977). Effect of pictorial stimulation on skin resistance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, pp 1051-1056.

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Oliver, I. (1984). Controlling stock shrinkage by subliminal suggestion. Unpublished manuscript. Subliminal Security Systems, P.O. Box 247, Jamison, ACT, 2614, Australia.

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Oliver, J.M. & Burkham, R. (1982). Subliminal psychodynamic activation in depression: A failure to replicate. St. Louis University. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (5), pp 337-342. ISSN: 0021-843X.

This study attempts to replicate S. Nissenfield's (1979) application of L.H. Silverman's technique of subliminal psychodynamic activation, in which a significant effect on statelike psychopathology symptomatic of depression was found for the "symbiotic" stimulus.
The subjects were administered 3 subliminal stimuli;

1) a control stimulus (people talking),

2) the symbiotic stimulus (mommy and I are one), and

3) a rapprochement stimulus (mommy loves me as I am).

Dependent variable were anxious and depressed affect as measured by the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, depressed and hypomanic themes rated from the TAT, the Digit Symbol subscale from the WAIS, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Silverman's measure of pathological nonverbal behavior.
The MANOVA found no significant effects for any of the independent variables.
Neither the inadequate power of statistical tests nor deficient methodology accounted for this failure to replicate Nissenfield's findings.

***

Oliver, J.M. & Burkham, R. (1985). Comments on three recent subliminal psychodynamic activation investigations: Reply to Silverman. St. Louis University. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94 (4), p. 644. ISSN: 0021-843X.

The authors believe that their failure to replicate L.H. Silverman's 1976 description of subliminal psychodynamic activation, can be traced in part to Silverman's 1978 description of the "symbiotic" stimulus (mommy and I are one), one of the two experimental stimuli used, as a "ubiquitous therapeutic agent."
The authors also believe that, although Silverman's is prepared to modify his theory in light of empirical findings, modifications that are too frequent and numerous will pose problems for both theory and research.

***

Olson, M.C. (1975). Subliminal messages in advertising. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Conference on English Education.

Miles Olson discusses the use of subliminals in advertising.
In his books, Wilson B. Key has demonstrated that subliminal messages in ads are perceived and do have an impact on attitudes and actions.
Olson has found as a result of his own personal research, that advertisements are full of hidden information, which is usually sexual in nature.
Olson also believes that we cannot accept or reject such information until we become conscious of it and are able to act on it in our normal, rational ways.

***

Olson, J. M. (1988). "Misattribution, preparatory information, and speech anxiety." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 54(5): 758-767.

Neutral subliminal stimuli was presented in two experiments with undergraduate students. The data suggests neutral labels can reduce anxiety due to misattribution interpretation.

***

Olson, J. M. and M. Ross (1988). "False feedback about placebo effectiveness: Consequences for the misattribution of speech anxiety." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 24(4): 275-291.

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Orbach, I., R. Shopen-Kofman, et al. (1994). "The impact of subliminal symbiotic vs identification messages in reducing anxiety." Journal of Research in Personality 28(4): 492 504.

This study compared effects of the symbiotic message, "Mommy and I ar